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Richard Evans Schultes

Albert Hofmann
Christian Ratsch

Their Sacred, Healing,
and Hallucinogenic Powers

“The more you go inside the world of Teonanacatl, the more things are seen.

And you also see our past and our future, which are there together as a single thing already achieved,
already happened. ... I saw stolen horses and buried cities, the existence of which was unknown,
and they are going to be brought to light. Millions of things I saw and knew. I knew and saw God:
an immense clock that ticks, the spheres that go slowly around, and inside the stars, the earth,
the entire universe, the day and the night, the cry and the smile, the happiness and the pain.

He who knows to the end the secret of Teonanacatl can even see that infinite clockwork.”

— Marfa Sabina

o'***
* -r

Healing Arts Press

Rochester, Vermont

Caution: This book is not intended as a guide to the use of
hallucinogenic plants. Its purpose is to offer scientific, his-
torical, and cultural documentation concerning a group of
plants that are or have been of importance to many societies.
Ingestion of some of these plants or plant products may be
dangerous. The remedies, approaches, and techniques de-
scribed herein are meant to supplement, and not be a sub-
stitute for, professional medical care or treatment. They
should not be used to treat a serious ailment without prior
consultation with a qualified healthcare professional.

Healing Arts Press
One Park Street
Rochester, Vermont 05767
www.lnnerTraditions.com

First published by Healing Arts Press in 1992

A production of EMB-Service for Publishers,

Lucerne, Switzerland

Publishers, Lucerne, Switzerland

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced
or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or me-
chanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any infor-
mation storage and retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publisher.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Schultes, Richard Evans.

Plants of the gods : their sacred, healing, and hallucino-
genic powers / Richard Evans Schultes, Albert Hofmann,
Christian Ratsch.— 2nd ed.
p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references
ISBN 0-89281-979-0

1. Hallucinogenic plants, 2. Hallucinogenic plants— Uti-
lization. 3. Ethnobotany. I. Hofmann, Albert, 1906- II.
Ratsch, Christian, 1957- III. Title
QK99.A1 S39 2001

394.1 '4— dc21 2001004425

1098765432

Healing Arts Press is a division of Inner Traditions
International

Picture on title page: Mayan “mushroom stone” from
El Salvador, late formative period (300 b. c.-a. d. 200);
height 13 Win. (33.5cm).

Original concept and design: Emil M. Buhrer, Franz Gisler,
Joan Halifax, and Robert Tobler
New material translated by: Annabel Lee and
Michael Beasley

Composition: SatzWeise, Fohren, Germany
Photolithography: Pesavento AG, Zurich, Switzerland

CONTENTS

7 PREFACE

9 INTRODUCTION

10 WHAT ARE PLANT
HALLUCINOGENS?

16 THE PLANT KINGDOM

20 PHYTOCHEMICAL

RESEARCH ON SACRED
PLANTS

26 GEOGRAPHY OF USAGE AND
BOTANICAL RANGE

31 PLANT LEXICON

62 WHO USES HALLUCINOGENIC
PLANTS?

65 OVERVIEW OF PLANT USE

81 THE MOST IMPORTANT
HALLUCINOGENIC PLANTS

82 MAINSTAY OF THE HEAVENS

Amanita. (Fly Agaric) •

86 THE HEXING HERBS

Atropa (Deadly Nightshade)
Hyoscyamus albus (Yellow Henbane)
Hyoscyamus niger (Black Henbane)
Mandragora (Mandrake)

92 THE NECTAR OF DELIGHT

Cannabis (Hemp, Marijuana,

Hashish)

102 ST. ANTHONY’S FIRE

Claviceps (Ergot)

106 HOLY FLOWER OF THE
NORTH STAR

Datura innoxia (Toloache)

Datura metel (Datura)

Datura stramonium (Thorn Apple)

112 GUIDE TO THE ANCESTORS

Tabemanthe (Iboga)

116 BEANS OF THE HEKULA
SPIRIT

Anadenanthera peregrina (Yopo)

120 SEEDS OF CIVILIZATION

Anadenanthera colubrina (Cebil)

124 THE MAGIC DRINK OF THE
AMAZON

Banistenopsis (Ayahuasca)

Psychotria (Chacruna)

Peganum (Syrian Rue)

Tetrapteris (Yage)

137 AYAHUASCA ANALOGS

140 TRUMPETS OF THE ANGELS

Brugmansia (Golden Angel’s Trumpet)
Brugmansia (Blood-Red Angel’s
Trumpet)

144 THE TRACKS OF THE LITTLE
DEER

Lophophora (Peyote)

156 LITTLE FLOWERS OF THE
GODS

Conocybe

Panaeolus cyanescens (Blue Meanies)
Panaeolus sphinctrinus (Hoop-
petticoat)

Panaeolus subbalteatus (Dark-rimmed
Mottlegill)

Psilocybe cubensis (San Isidro)

Psilocybe cyanescens (Wavy Cap)
Psilocybe mexicana (Teonanacatl)
Psilocybe semilanceata (Liberty Cap)

164 DIVINER’S SAGE

Salvia divmorum

166 CACTUS OF THE FOUR WINDS

Trichocereus (San Pedro)

170 VINES OF THE SERPENT

Ipomoea (Morning Glory)

Turbina (Ololiugui)

176 SEMEN OF THE SUN

Virola (Epena)

182 GATEWAY TO DREAMTIME

Duboisia (Pituri Bush)

184 CHEMICAL STRUCTURES OF
HALLUCINOGENS

188 USES OF HALLUCINOGENS
IN MEDICINE

196 EPILOGUE

198 PICTURE CREDITS

199 BIBLIOGRAPHY

199 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
204 INDEX

The dreaming smoker stretched out
comfortably on his chaise enjoys visions
induced by Hashish. This engraving is
from M. von Schwind’s Album of Etch-
ings, published in 1843.

Page 4 left: The witches of medieval
Europe induced inebriation with a great
variety of brews, most of which had at
least one of the Nightshades as a
psychoactive constituent. During their
intoxications, they engaged in many
aspects of hexing, both malevolent and
benevolent. This illustration, a woodcut,
published in 1459, portrays two witches
calling for rain and thunder, possibly
during a dry spell, and preparing a brew
to help them achieve this goal.

For the Huicho! Indians of Mexico, the Peyote cactus (Lophophora williamsii)
(see page 7) is not a plant but a god, a gift from the Earth Goddess to hu-
mans to assist them in attaining a connection to her in the mystical realms.
The Huichol celebrate a great Peyote festival every year (below), at which all
members of the tribe partake in eating the freshly harvested Peyote cactus.

PREFACE

The earliest forms of life on Earth were plants. Re-
markably preserved plant fossils have recently
been discovered dating back 3.2 billion years.
These early plants provided the foundation for
the development of all later forms of plants and
indeed of animals, including that most recent of
creatures, the human being. The green plant cover
of the earth has a marvelous relationship with the
sun: chlorophyll-bearing plants absorb solar rays
and synthesize organic compounds, the building
materials for both plant and animal organisms. In
vegetable matter, solar energy is stored in the form
of chemical energy, source of all life processes.
Thus the Plant Kingdom provides not only body-
building foods and calories but also vitamins es-
sential for metabolic regulation. Plants also yield
active principles employed as medicines. The inti-
mate relationship between the human and plant

world is easily discerned, but the production of
substances profoundly affecting the mind and
spirit is often not so easily recognized. These are
the plants that make up the substance of Plants of
the Gods, focusing attention on the origin of their
use and the effect that they have had on man’s de-
velopment. Plants that alter the normal functions
of the mind and body have always been considered
by peoples in nonindustrial societies as sacred, and
the hallucinogens have been “plants of the gods’
par excellence.

“In consciousness dwells the wondrous,
with it man attains the realm beyond the material,
and the Peyote tells us,
where to find it.”

• — Antonin Artaud, The Tara.huma.rs (1947)

The shamans of the Huichol Indians use the sacred Peyote cactus so that will change the latter. The shaman in the middle of the yarn painting is

they may attain a visionary state of consciousness in the alternate reality, depicted with a skull because he is a "dead man" and thus has the ability to

which is causal to occurrences in mundane reality; what affects the former travel into the nether realms.

INTRODUCTION

The use of hallucinogenic or consciousness-
expanding plants has been a part of human experi-
ence for many millennia, yet modern Western so-
cieties have only recently become aware of the
significance that these plants have had in shaping
the history of primitive and even of advanced cul-
tures. In fact, the past thirty years have witnessed
a vertiginous growth of interest in the use and
possible value of hallucinogens in our own mod-
ern, industrialized, and urbanized society.

Hallucinogenic plants are complex chemical
factories. Their full potential as aids to human
needs is not yet fully recognized. Some plants
contain chemical compounds capable of inducing
altered perceptions, such as visual, auditory, tac-
tile, olfactory, and gustatory hallucinations, or
causing artificial psychoses that, without any
doubt, have been known and employed in human
experience since earliest man’s experimentation
with his ambient vegetation. The amazing effects
of these mind-altering plants are frequently in-
explicable and indeed uncanny.

Little wonder, then, that they have long played
an important role in the religious rites of early ci-
vilizations and are still held in veneration and awe
as sacred elements by certain peoples who have
continued to live in archaic cultures, bound to an-
cient traditions and ways of life. How could man
in archaic societies better contact the spirit world
than through the use of plants with psychic effects
enabling the partaker to communicate with super-
natural realms? What more direct method than to
permit man to free himself from the prosaic con-
fines of this earthly existence and to enable him to
enter temporarily the fascinating worlds of inde-
scribably ethereal wonder opened to him, even
though fleetingly, by hallucinogens?

Hallucinogenic plants are strange, mystical,
confounding. Why? Because they are only now
beginning to be the subject of truly scientific
study. The results of these investigations will, most
assuredly, increase interest in the technical impor-
tance of the study of these biodynamic plants. For
man’s mind, as well as his body and the organs of
the body, need curative and corrective agents.

Are these nonaddictive drugs of interest as
“mind-expanding agents,” as media for attaining
“the mystic experience,” or as agents to be em-
ployed merely as aids in hedonistic adventure?

There is, however, another aspect that engages the
scientist’s attention: Can a thorough understand-
ing of the use and chemical composition of these
drugs not lead to the discovery of new pharmaceu-
tical tools for psychiatric treatment or experimen-
tation? The central nervous system is a most com-
plex organ, and psychiatry has not advanced so
rapidly as many other fields of medicine, mainly
because it has not had adequate tools. Some of
these mind-altering plants and their active chemi-
cal principles may indeed have far-reaching posi-
tive effects when they are fully understood.

An educated public must be an integral part in
such development of scientific knowledge, espe-
cially in so controversial a field as hallucinogenic
drugs. It is for this reason that we offer the present
volume — directed neither to the scientists who are
deeply involved in research in this field nor to the
casual reader, but to the concerned public. It is our
belief that scientists — for the sake of humanity
itself and its advancement— must make technical
knowledge available to those able to take advan-
tage of its presentation. It is in this spirit that we
wrote Plants of the Gods, hoping that it may, in
one way or another, further the practical interests
of mankind.

Richard Evans Schultes
Albert Hofmann

THE REVISION

When the book Plants of the Gods first appeared in
1 979, it was a milestone in ethnobotany and ethno-
pharmacology. The book inspired and influenced
many young researchers around the world and en-
couraged them to continue in their own work. Be-
cause of this there have been some new discoveries
about the plants of the gods. Many questions about
the activity and constituents of psychedelic plants
have been clarified. I have tried to incorporate the
new information in a way that preserves the origi-
nal character of the book and reflects the current
state of knowledge. I hope that the plants of the
gods retain their valuable position in our world
and that they reach the many people upon whom
the sacredness of nature is dependent.

Christian Ratsch

WHAT ARE PLANT HALLUCINOGENS?

Many plants are toxic. It is no accident that the
etymological origin of the word toxic stems di-
rectly from the Greek word to^lxov (toxikon),
for “bow,” referring to the use of arrow poisons.

Medicinal plants are useful in curing or alleviat-
ing man’s illnesses because they are toxic. The
popular interpretation tends to accept the term
toxic as implying poisoning with fatal results.
Yet, as Paracelsus wrote in the sixteenth century:
“In all things there is a poison, and there is noth-
ing without a poison. It depends only upon the
dose whether something is poison or not.”

The difference among a poison, a medicine, and
a narcotic is only one of dosage. Digitalis, for ex-
ample, in proper doses represents one of our most
efficacious and widely prescribed cardiac medi-
cines, yet in higher doses it is a deadly poison.

We all realize the meaning of the term intoxica-
tion, but it is popularly applied primarily to the
toxic effects from overindulgence in alcohol. In
reality, however, any toxic substance may intoxi-
cate. Webster defines toxic as “Of, pertaining to,
or caused by poison.” It might be more specific to
state that a toxic substance is a plant or animal
substance or chemical ingested for other than
purely nutritional purposes and which has a no-
ticeable biodynamic effect on the body. We realize, I
that this is a broad definition— a definition £l\©fj ;
would include such constituents as caffeine: wwl
employed in its usual form as a stimulant, caffeme 1
does not evoke truly toxic symptoms, but in high
doses it is a very definite and dangerous poison.

Hallucinogens must be classed as toxic. They
induce unmistakable intoxications. They are like-
wise, in the broad sense of the term, narcotics. The
term narcotic, coming from the Greek vagxovv
(narkoyn), to benumb, etymologically refers to a
substance that, however stimulating it may be in
one or more phases of its activity, terminates its
effects with a depressive state on the central ner-
vous system. Under this broad definition, alcohol
and tobacco are narcotics. The stimulants such as
caffeine do not fall under the definition of narco-
tic, since in normal doses, they do not induce a
terminal depression, though they are psychoac-
tive. English has no term that, like the German
Genufimittel (“medium of enjoyment”), includes
both narcotics and stimulants.

But the term narcotic has popularly been inter-

Datura has long been connected to the
worship of Shiva, the Indian god asso-
ciated with the creative and destructive
aspects of the universe. In this extraor-
dinary bronze sculpture from South-
east India of the eleventh or twelfth
century, Shiva dances the Anandatan-
dava , the seventh and last of his
dances, which combines all inflections
of his character. Under his left foot,
Shiva crushes the demon Apasmara-
purusa , who is the personification of
ignorance. In Shiva’s upper right hand,
he holds a tiny drum that symbolizes
Time by the rhythm of his cosmic
dance in the field of Life and Creation.
His lower right hand is in the abhaya-
mudra, expressing Shiva’s quality of
safeguarding the universe. In his upper
left hand, he holds a flame that burns
the veil of illusion. His lower left hand is
held in the gajahasta and points to his
raised left foot, which is free in space
and symbolizes spiritual liberation.
Shiva’s hair is bound with a band, and
two serpents hold a skull as a central
ornament, thus showing Shiva’s de-
structive aspects of Time and Death.
On the right is a Datura flower. Gar-
lands of Datura blossoms are woven
among the locks of his whirling hair.

Below: This painting by the Peruvian shaman Pablo Amaringo depicts the Page 13 top: The hallucinogenic use of Hemp (Cannabis) can be traced far

creation of the drink Ayahuasca, the most important medicine of the Amazo- back into history. It is possible that the ingestion of this plant was responsible

nian Indians. The magical drink has powerful visionary properties, which re- for the wild dances of the Mongolian shaman,

veal to the participant a glimpse of “true reality,” the fantastic realm of visions.

preted as referring to dangerously addictive agents, different hallucinations. Hallucinogens may like-

such as opium and its derivatives (morphine, co- wise cause artificial psychoses — the basis of one of

deine, heroin) and cocaine. In the United States a the numerous terms for this class of active agents:

substance must be included in the Harrison Narco- psychotomimetic (“inducing psychotic states”),

tic Act to be considered legally a narcotic: thus Modern brain research has shown, however, that

Marijuana is not legally a narcotic, although it is a hallucinogens trigger brain activity entirely differ-

controlled substance. ent from that apparent with true psychoses.

Hallucinogens are, broadly speaking, all narco- Modern studies have demonstrated such a corn-

tics, even though none is known to be addictive or plexity of psychophysiological effects that the
to have narcotic effects. term hallucinogen does not always cover the

There are many kinds of hallucinations: the whole range of reactions. Therefore, a bewilder-

most common and popularly recognized is the vi- ing nomenclature has arisen. None of the terms,

sual hallucination, often in colors. But all senses however, fully describes all known effects. The

maybe subject to hallucinations: auditory, tactile, terms include entheogens, deliriants, delusiono-

olfactory, and gustatory hallucinations can occur. gens, eidetics, hallucinogens, misper cep tino gens,

Frequently a single hallucinatory plant — as in the mysticomimetics, phanerothymes, phantasticants,

case of Peyote or Marijuana — may induce several psychotica, psychoticants, psychogens, psychosomi-

Below right: In India the flowers of the potent hallucinogenic Thorn Apple
(Datura metel) are brought as an offering to the Hindu god Shiva They are
also ritually smoked.

Below left: Henbane (Hyoscyamus albus) is one of the most important hallu-
cinogenic plants of Europe. It was used for oracles and ritually burned in
ancient Greece.

metics, psychodysleptics, psychotar axics, psychoto-
gens, psychotomimetics, schizogens, and. psychede-
lics, among other epithets. In Europe, they are fre-
quently called phantastica. The most common
name in the United States — psychedelics — is ety-
mologically unsound and has acquired other
meanings in the drug subculture.

The truth is that no one term adequately delimits
such a varied group of psychoactive plants. The
German toxicologist Louis Lewin, who first used
the term phantastica, admitted that it “does not
cover all that I should wish it to convey/’ The word
hallucinogen is easy to pronounce and to under-
stand, yet not all of the plants induce true halluci-
nations. Psychotomimetic, while often employed,
is not accepted by many specialists because not all
the plants in this group cause psychotic-like states.

But since these two terms — hallucinogen and psy-
chotomimetic — -are easily understood and widely
used, we shall employ them in this book.

Among the many definitions that have been of-
fered, that of Hoffer and Osmond is broad enough
to be widely accepted: “Hallucinogens are . . . che-
micals which, in non-toxic doses, produce changes
in perception, in thought and in mood, but which
seldom produce mental confusion, memory loss or
disorientation for person, place and time.”

Basing his classification of psychoactive drugs
on the older arrangements of Lewin, Albert Hof-
mann divides them into analgesics and euphorics
(Opium, Coca), sedatives and tranquilizers (Re-
serpine), hypnotics (Kava-kava), and hallucino-
gens or psychedelics (Peyote, Marijuana, etc.).
Most of these groups modify only the mood,

Below: Maria Sabina reverently ingests the ninos santos, “holy children,” as Page 15: The Mazatec shaman Maria Sabina incenses sacred mushrooms

she lovingly refers to the visionary and healing Magic Mushrooms. prior to their ingestion during the healing ceremony of the velada.

either stimulating or calming it. But the last group
produces deep changes in the sphere of experience,
in perception of reality, in space and time, and in
consciousness of self. Depersonalization may oc-
cur. Without loss of consciousness, the subject en-
ters a dream world that often appears more real
than the normal world. Colors are frequently ex-
perienced in indescribable brilliance; objects may
lose their symbolic character, standing detached
and assuming increased significance since they
seem to possess their own existence.

The psychic changes and unusual states of con-
sciousness induced by hallucinogens are so far re-
moved from similarity with ordinary life that it is
scarcely possible to describe them in the language
of daily living. A person under the effects of a hal-
lucinogen forsakes his familiar world and operates
under other standards, in strange dimensions and
in a different time.

While most hallucinogens are of plant origin, a
few are derived from the Animal Kingdom (toads,

frogs, fish) and some are synthetic (LSD, TMA,
DOB). Their use goes back so far into prehistory
that it has been postulated that perhaps the whole
idea of the deity could have arisen as a result of the
otherworldly effects of these agents.

Indigenous cultures usually have no concept of
physically or organically induced sickness or
death: both result from interference from the spir-
it world. Therefore, hallucinogens, which permit
the native healer and sometimes even the patient
to communicate with the spirit world, often be-
come greater medicines — the medicines par excel-
lence— of the native pharmacopoeia. They assume
far more exalted roles than do the medicines or
palliatives with direct physical action on the body.
Little by little, they became the firm basis for
“medical” practices of most, if not all, aboriginal
societies.

Hallucinogenic plants owe their activity to a
limited number of types of chemical substances
acting in a specific way upon a definite part of
the central nervous system. The hallucinogenic
state is usually short-lived, lasting only until the
causative principle is metabolized or excreted
from the body. There would seem to be a differ-
ence between what we might call true hallucina-
tions (visions) and what perhaps could be de-
scribed as pseudo-hallucinations. Conditions for
all practical purposes apparently very similar to
hallucinations may be induced by many highly
toxic plants which so upset the normal metabo-
lism that an abnormal mental condition may de-
velop. A number of the plants (for example, Salvia
divinorum ) experimented with by members of the
so-called drug subculture and which were consid-
ered as newly discovered hallucinogens by their
users belong to this category as well. Pseudo-
hallucinogenic conditions may be induced with-
out the ingestion of toxic plants or substances;
high fevers are known to cause such reactions.
Fanatics of the Middle Ages who went without
food or water over long periods finally induced
such alterations in normal metabolism that they
did actually experience visions and hear voices
through pseudo-hallucinogens.

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THE PLANT KINGDOM

Before the eighteenth century, there was really no
logical or widely accepted classification or naming
of plants. They were known in Europe by the ver-
nacular names current in the various countries and
were referred to technically in Latin by cumber-
some descriptive phrases, often several words long.

The invention of printing and movable type in
the middle of the 1400s stimulated the production
of herbals — that is, botanical books — mainly on
medicinal plants. The so-called Age of Herbals,
from about 1470 to 1670, led to the freeing of bot-
any and medicine from the ancient concepts of
Dioscorides and other classical naturalists that
shaped Europe for some sixteen centuries. These
two centuries saw more progress in botany than
had taken place during the previous millennium
and a half.

Yet it was not until the eighteenth century that
Carolus Linnaeus, or Carl von Linne, a Swedish
naturalist-physician and professor at the Univer-
sity of Uppsala, offered the first comprehensive
and scientific system of classification and nomen-
clature for plants in his monumental, 1,200-page
book Species Plantarum, published in 1753.

Linnaeus grouped plants according to his "sex-
ual system” — a simple system of twenty-four
classes based primarily on the number and charac-
teristics of the stamens. He gave each plant a gen-
eric and a specific name, resulting in a binomial
nomenclature. Although other botanists had used
binomials, Linnaeus was the first to employ the
system consistently. While his sexual classifica-
tion — highly artificial and inadequate from the
point of view of an evolutionary understanding
of the Plant Kingdom (which was to come la-
ter) — is no longer followed, his binomial nomen-
clature is now universally accepted, and botanists
have agreed on the year 1753 as the starting point
of current nomenclature.

Believing that he had classified most of the
world’s flora in 1753, Linnaeus calculated the size
of the Plant Kingdom as 10,000 or fewer species.
But Linnaeus’s work and the influence of his
many students had stimulated interest in the flora
of the new lands that were being opened to colo-
nization and exploration. Consequently, nearly a
century later, in 1847, the British botanist John
Lindley increased the estimate to nearly 100,000
species in 8,900 genera.

MONOCCHSjSgDONEAE

Hallucinogenic species occur among the highest-evolved
flowering plants (angiosperms) and in the division fungi of
the simpler plants. Angiosperms are subdivided into mono-
cots (one seed leaf) and dicots (two seed leaves).

Sweet Flag, Hemp (Marijuana), and Deadly Nightshade
(above, right) as well as Fly Agaric (below, right) are repre-
sentative psychoactive species.

Male Fern
Dryopteris filix-mas

SlERjpOP^YTA

BRYOPHYTA

Hal reap Moss

Onh/frinhi im nnmmnna

Tobacco

Hemp; Mariju i
Cannabis safiva

Scotch Rosa

cone-bearers (gymnosperms) and flowering plants
(angiosperms).

Gymhospermae

sPE[JMATOPHYTA'

Polyporales

Ganodernia

Deadly Nighrsnane
Atropa bellMjpqa

uear

Nicotiana fafia/m Atrof

'Metaghl^rn deal

Rosa spino$i$$irpa

Arenichiamyaeae

OlCO^VLED'ONEAE

Dicots (flowering plants with two seed leaves) are separated into
Archichlamydeae (petals absent or separate) and Metachlamy-
deae (petals joined).

ftngiospermiae

White Pine
Pinus strobus

Seaweeds

OPHYTA

Fly Agaric
Amanita mliscatja

Mushrooms and molds (fungi), seaweeds (algae), mosses
and liverworts (bryophytes), and ferns (pteridophytes) are
simpler plants.

■

Below: A flower and leaves of the hallucinogenic Datura innoxia, which be-
longs to one of the most highly evolved families of the flowering plants.

Even though modern botany is only two centu-
ries old, estimates have greatly increased. They
vary from some 280,000 to 700,000 species, the
higher figures being generally accepted by bota-
nists whose research is centered in the still only
superficially explored tropical regions.

Modern specialists estimate the fungi at be-
tween 30,000 and 100,000 species. The great var-
iance is due partly to lack of comprehensive stu-
dies of many groups and partly to inadequate
means of defining some of the unicellular mem-
bers. One contemporary mycologist, realizing
that the fungi are very sparsely collected in the
tropics, where they abound, suggests that the total
figure might reach 200,000.

All of the algae are aquatic, more than half being
marine. This most varied group of plants is now be-
lieved to comprise from 19,000 to 32,000 species.
Algae have been found in pre-Cambrian fossils dat-
ing from one to more than three billion years of age.
These procaryotic blue-green algae (Collenia) re-
present the oldest known form of life on Earth.

Page 19 left: This fossil of blue-green algae (Collenia) is approximately 2.3
billion years old and is one of the earliest known specimens of life on Earth.

Page Wright : A fossilized algae colony from the Cambrian period in Bolivia
demonstrates that life-forms can be successfully preserved over billions of
years.

Lichens — a curious group of plants comprising
a symbiotic union of an alga and a fungus — num-
ber from 16,000 to 20,000 species in 450 genera.

The bryophytes comprise two groups: mosses
and liverworts. They are primarily tropical, and
many new species are to be expected from the tro-
pics with increased field investigations. That they
are not an economic group may be in part respon-
sible for our lack of understanding of their extent.

Present calculations assign 12,000 to 15,000 spe-
cies to the pteridophytes: the ferns and their allies.
An ancient group of plants, it is best represented
today in tropical regions. The seed-bearing plants,
or spermatophytes, clearly dominate the land
flora of the present time. The gymnosperms, or
cone-bearing plants, constitute a small group of
some 675 species; dating back into the Carbonifer-
ous Age, this group is apparently dying out.

The principal group of plants today — the plants
that dominate the earth’s flora and which have di-
versified into the greatest number of species and
which, in the popular mind, comprise the world’s
flora- — are the angiosperms. Angiosperms are seed
plants in which the seed is covered or protected by
ovarian tissue, in contrast to the gymnosperms,
which have naked seeds. They are commonly
called flowering plants. Economically the most
important group of plants today, they have domi-
nated the several terrestrial environments of the
earth. Consequently, they may have a right to be
known as the “most important” plants.

Estimates of their extent vary. Most botanists
hold that there are 200,000 to 250,000 species in
300 families. Other estimates, probably more rea-
listic, calculate 500,000 species.

There are two major groups of angiosperms: the
monocotyledons, plants with one seed leaf; and
those with usually two seed leaves. The monoco-
tyledons are usually credited with one quarter of
the total.

Some sections of the Plant Kingdom are of
great importance from the point of view of biody-
namic species with compounds of significance to
medicinal or hallucinogenic activity.

The fungi are of increasing interest: almost all
antibiotics in wide use are derived from fungi.
They are also employed in the pharmaceutical in-
dustry in the synthesis of steroids and for other
purposes. Hallucinogenic compounds may be

widespread in the fungi, but those that have been
of importance in human affairs belong to the asco-
mycetes (Ergot) and the basidiomycetes (various
mushrooms and puffballs). The importance of
fungi as sources of aflotoxins of foods has only
recently been recognized.

Algae and lichens, interestingly, have as yet not
yielded any species reported as hallucinogens. An
impressive number of new biodynamic com-
pounds, some of possible medical value, have al-
ready been isolated from algae. Recent research
has heightened the promise of isolation of active
principles from lichens: they have yielded a large
number of bacteria-inhibiting compounds and
have been shown to be rich in chemovars. There
are persistent reports of hallucinogenic lichens em-
ployed in northwesternmost North America, but
as yet no identifiable specimens or reliable
information has been forthcoming. In South Amer-
ica, a lichen (Dictyonema) is used as a psychoactive.
The bryophytes have been phytochemically
neglected; the few that have been studied have gi-
ven little hope as sources of biodynamic com-
pounds. Similarly, in ethnomedicine, the mosses
and liverworts seem to have been ignored.

Some ferns appear to be bioactive and psy-
choactive. However, phytochemical investigation
has been far from exhaustive. Very recent investi-
gations have indicated a hitherto unsuspected
wealth of biodynamic compounds of potential in-
terest to medicine and commerce; sesquiterpinoid
lactones, ecdyosones, alkaloids, and cyanogenic
glycosides. A recent survey for antibacterial activ-
ity of extracts from 44 Trinidadian ferns indicated
the surprising fact that 77 percent were positive.
No hallucinogenic constituents have yet been dis-
covered in laboratory research or by indigenous

societies, although several ferns are employed in
South America as additives to hallucinogenic
drinks (Ayahuasca).

Of the spermatophytes, the gymnosperms exhi-
bit few biodynamic elements. They are known
primarily as the source of the sympathomimetic
alkaloid ephedrine and the very toxic taxine.
Many are of economic importance as sources of
resins and timber. This group of seed plants is rich
also in physiologically active stilbines and other
compounds that act as protective agents against
heartwood decay (essential oils).

From many points of view, the angiosperms are
the important plants: as the dominant and most
numerous group and as the elements basic to
man’s social and material evolution. They repre-
sent the source of most of our medicines of vegetal
origin; most toxic species are angiospermous; and
almost all hallucinogens used by man, as well as
other narcotics, belong to this group. It is easy to
understand why angiosperms have been chemi-
cally more assiduously studied; but what is not
fully recognized is the fact that the angiosperms
themselves have been merely superficially exam-
ined. It is clear that the Plant Kingdom represents
an only partially studied emporium of biodyna-
mic principles. Each species is a veritable chemical
factory. Although indigenous societies have dis-
covered many medicinal, toxic, and narcotic prop-
erties in their ambient vegetation, there is no rea-
son to presume that their experimentation has
brought to light all the psychoactive principles
hidden in these plants.

Undoubtedly new hallucinogens are lurking in
the Plant Kingdom and, in them, possible consti-
tuents of extreme interest to modern medical
practice.

PHYTOCHEMICAL
RESEARCH ON
SACRED PLANTS

Plants of the gods interest various disciplines: eth-
nology, religious studies, history, and folklore.
The two major scientific disciplines that concern
themselves with these plants, however, are botany
and chemistry. This chapter describes the work of
chemists who analyze the constituents of plants
used in religious rites and in the magic of medicine
men and discusses the potential benefits from
such research.

The botanist must establish the identity of
plants that in the past were used as sacred drugs
or which are still employed for that purpose to-
day. The next step to be explored by scientists is:
What constituents — which of the substances in
those plants — actually produce the effects that
have led to their use in religious rites and magic?
What the chemist is looking for is the active prin-
ciple, the quintessence or quinta essentia , as Para-
celsus called the active compounds in plant
drugs.

Among the many hundreds of different sub-
stances that make up the chemical composition of
a plant, only one or two (occasionally up to half a
dozen) compounds are responsible for its psy-
choactive effects. The proportion by weight of
these active principles is usually only a fraction
of 1 percent, and frequently even of one part per
thousand of the plant. The main constituents of
fresh plants, usually more than 90 percent by
weight, are cellulose (which provides the support-
ing structure) and water (as the solvent and trans-
port medium for plant nutrients and metabolic
products). Carbohydrates (such as starch and var-
ious sugars), proteins, fats, mineral salts, and pig-
ments make up several more percent of the plant.
Together with these normal components, they
constitute practically the whole plant, and they
are common to all higher plants. Substances with
unusual physiological and psychic effects are
found only in certain special plants. These sub-
stances as a rule have very different chemical
structures from those of the usual vegetal consti-
tuents and common metabolic products.

It is not known what function these special sub-
stances may have in the life of the plant. Various
theories have been offered. Most psychoactive
principles in these sacred plants contain nitrogen,
and it has therefore been suggested that they may
be waste products of metabolism — like uric acid

in animal organisms — their purpose being the
elimination of excess nitrogen. If this theory were
true, one would expect all plants to contain such
nitrogenous constituents: that is not the case.
Many of the psychoactive compounds are toxic if
taken in large doses, and it has therefore been sug-
gested that they serve to protect the plants from
animals. But this theory likewise is hardly convin-
cing, because many poisonous plants are in fact
eaten by animals that are immune to the toxic con-
stituents.

It remains, therefore, one of the unsolved rid-
dles of nature why certain plants produce sub-
stances with specific effects on the mental and
emotional functions of man, on his sense of per-
ception, and actually on his state of consciousness.

Phytochemists have the important and fascinat-
ing task of separating the active principles from
the rest of the plant materials and of producing
them in pure form. Once active principles are thus
available, it is possible to analyze them to deter-
mine the elements of which they are composed;
the relative proportions of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, etc.; and to establish the mole-
cular structure in which these elements are ar-
ranged. The next step is the synthesis of the active
principle: that is, to make it in the test tube quite
independently of the plant.

With pure compounds — whether isolated from
the plant or synthetically produced — exact phar-
macological assays and chemical tests can be
made. This is not possible with whole plants be-
cause of the varying content of the active princi-
ples and interference from other constituents.

The first psychoactive principle to be produced
in pure form from a plant was morphine, an alka-
loid present in the opium poppy. It was first iso-
lated by the pharmacist Friedrich Serturner in
1806. This new compound was named for the
Greek god of sleep, Morpheus, because of its
sleep-inducing properties. Since then, enormous
strides have been made in developing more effi-
cient methods for the separation and purification
of active principles, with the most important tech-
niques evolving only during the last decades.
These include the techniques of chromatography:
methods of separation based on the fact that
different substances adhere in varying degrees on
absorbent materials or are more or less readily

The psychoactive latex of the Poppy (Papaver somniferum) emerges white
and turns to a resinous brown substance, raw opium. In 1806 morphine was
successfully isolated out of the poppy, the first time in history that a single
constituent was isolated.

Below: Papaver somniferum from Kohler’s Medizinal-Pflanzen-Atlas, 1887
This atlas is one of the outstanding plant books of the twentieth century.
Morphine is not hallucinogenic; it has been classified as a euphoric drug.

[ft

* l fl

11 * w

BVt /

Some psychoactive compounds are also produced by animals. The Colorado
River toad (Bufo alvarius) secretes considerable amounts of 5-MeO-DMT

taken up in solvents that do not mix. The methods
used in qualitative analysis and to establish the
chemical structure of compounds have also under-
gone fundamental changes in recent years. For-
merly, several generations of chemists would be
needed to elucidate the complex structures of nat-
ural compounds. Today, it takes just a few weeks
or even only days to determine them with the
techniques of spectroanalysis and X-ray analysis.
At the same time, improved methods of chemical
synthesis have been developed. The great ad-
vances made in the field of chemistry, and the effi-
cient methods now available to plant chemists,
have in recent years made it possible to gain
appreciable knowledge of the chemistry of active
principles found in psychoactive plants.

The contribution made by chemists to the
study of sacred plant drugs may be illustrated
with the example of the Magic Mushrooms of
Mexico. Ethnologists had found Indian tribes in
the southern parts of Mexico using mushrooms in
their religious ceremonies. Mycologists identified
the mushrooms used in these rituals. Chemical
analyses showed clearly which species were psy-
choactive. Albert Hofmann tested one species of
mushroom on himself; he discovered that it was
psychoactive, that it could be grown under la-
boratory conditions, and he was able to isolate
two active compounds. The purity and chemical
homogeneity of a compound can be demonstra-
ted by its ability to crystallize, unless of course it
be a liquid. The two hallucinogenic principles
now known as psilocybine and psilocine, found
in the Mexican Magic Mushroom Psilocybe mex-
icana, were obtained in the form of colorless crys-
tals.

Similarly, the active principle of the Mexican
cactus Lophophom williamsii, mescaline, had been

isolated in pure form and crystallized as a salt with
hydrochloric acid.

With the active principles of the mushrooms
available in pure form, it became possible to ex-
tend research into various fields, such as psychia-
try, with useful results.

By determining the presence or absence of psi-
locybine and psilocine, an objective method was
now available for distinguishing true hallucino-
genic mushrooms from false ones.

The chemical structure of the hallucinogenic
principles of the mushrooms was determined (see
structural formulas in the next chapter), and it was
found that these compounds were closely related
chemically to substances (serotonin) occurring
naturally in the brain that play a major role in the
regulation of psychic functions.

As the pure compounds can be given in exact
doses, their pharmacological actions could now
be studied under reproducible conditions in ani-
mal experiments, and the spectrum of their psy-
chotropic actions in man determined. This was
not possible with the original mushrooms, be-
cause their content of active principles tends to
vary, between 0.1 and 0.6 percent of the dry
weight of the plant tissue. The greater part of this
content is psilocybine, with psilocine present usu-
ally only in traces. The median effective dose for
humans is 8 to 16 milligrams of psilocybine or
psilocine. Instead of swallowing 2 grams of the
dried mushrooms, which have a rather unpleasant
taste, one merely needs to take about 0.008 gram
of psilocybine to experience the hallucinogenic ef-
fects, which generally last for several hours.

Once the active principles were available in
pure form, it was possible to study their use and
effective application in medicine. They were
found to be particularly useful in experimental

Mescaline— HCI Psilocybine Psilocine

(mescaline-hydrochloride, crystallized from alcohol) (crystallized from methanol) (crystallized from methanol)

psychiatry, as valuable aids to psychoanalysis and
psychotherapy

One might think that with the isolation, struc-
tural analysis, and synthesis of psilocybine and
psilocine, the mushrooms of Mexico had lost their
magic. Substances that because of their effects on
the mind had led Indians to believe for thousands
of years that a god dwelt in those mushrooms can
now be synthetically produced in the chemist’s
retort. It should be remembered, however, that
scientific investigation has merely shown that the
magic properties of the mushrooms are the prop-
erties of two crystalline compounds. Their effect
on the human mind is just as inexplicable, and just
as magical, as that of the mushrooms themselves.
This also holds true for the isolated and purified
active principles of other plants of the gods.

Many alkaloids crystallize poorly as free bases. They will separate as a crys-
tallized salt, however, when neutralized with a suitable acid, either by cooling
the saturated solution or by evaporation of the solvent. Crystallization of sub-
stances from solutions is carried out mainly fpr purification, since by-products
remain in the solvent.

As each substance has its own specific crystalline form, this form serves for
identification and characterization of a substance. A modern method for the
elucidation of chemical constitutions is the X-ray structure analysis. For the
application of this method, alkaloids and other substances must be available
in crystallized form.

rv \

Right: 'There were enormous trees, crowned with magnificent foliage, decked with fantastic
parasites, and hung over with lianas, which varied in thickness from slender threads to huge
python-like masses, were now round, now flattened, now knotted and now twisted with the
regularity of a cable. Intermixed with the trees, and often equal to them in altitude, grew noble
palms; while other and far lovelier species of the same family, their ringed stems sometimes
scarcely exceeding a finger’s thickness, but bearing plume-like fronds and pendulous bunches
of black or red berries, quite like those of their loftier allies, formed, along with shrubs and
arbuscles of many types, a bushy undergrowth, not visually very dense or difficult to penetrate
. . . It is worthy to be noted that the loftiest forest is generally the easiest to traverse; the lianas
and parasites . . . being in great part too high to be much in the way . .

—Richard Spruce

“The largest river m the world
runs through the largest forest . . . By little and little,
I began to comprehend

that in a forest which is practically unlimited —
near three millions of square miles
clad with trees and little else but trees,
and where the natives

think no more of destroying the noblest trees,
when they stand in their way, than we the vilest weed,
a single tree cut down

makes no greater a gap, and is no more missed,
than when one pulls up a stalk of groundsel
or a poppy in an English cornfield.”

— Richard Spruce

Below: The photograph depicts an aerial view of the Kuluene River, the southernmost tributary
of the Xingu River, a main affluent of the Amazon.

GEOGRAPHY OF
USAGE AND
BOTANICAL RANGE

Many more hallucinogenic plants exist than those
that man has put to use. Of the probable half-
million species in the world’s flora, only about
one thousand are known to be employed for their
hallucinogenic properties. Few areas of the globe
lack at least one hallucinogen of significance in the
culture of the inhabitants.

Despite its size and extremely varied vegeta-
tion, Africa appears to be poor in hallucinogenic
plants. The most famous, of course, is Iboga, a
root of the Dogbane family employed in Gabon
and parts of the Congo in the Bwiti cult. The
Bushmen of Botswana slice the bulb of Kwashi
of the Amaryllis family and rub it over scarifica-
tions on the head, allowing the active principles in
the juice to enter the bloodstream. Kanna is a
mysterious hallucinogen, probably no longer
used: the Hottentots chewed the plant material
from two species of the Ice Plant family that in-
duced gaiety, laughter, and visions. In scattered
regions, relatives of Thorn Apple and Henbane
were used for their intoxicating properties.

In Eurasia there are many plants employed for
their hallucinatory effects. Most significant, it is
the home of Hemp, today the most widespread
of all narcotics: as Marijuana, Maconha, Daggha,
Ganja, Charas, etc., the drug and its use have
spread nearly throughout the world.

The most spectacular Eurasiatic hallucinogen is
the Fly Agaric, a mushroom consumed by scat-
tered tribesmen in Siberia and possibly the sacred
god-narcotic Soma of ancient India.

Datura was employed over wide areas of Asia.
In Southeast Asia, especially in Papua New Gui-
nea, sundry poorly understood hallucinogens are
used. The rhizome of Maraba, a member of the
Ginger family, is believed to be eaten in New Gui-
nea. In Papua, natives ingest a mixture of leaves of
Ereriba of the Arum family and bark of a large tree,
Agara, to produce a sleep during which visions oc-
cur. Nutmeg may once have been taken in India
and Indonesia for its narcotic effects. Tribesmen
in Turkestan drink an intoxicating tea made from
the dried leaves of a shrubby mint, Lagocbilus.

The heyday of the use of hallucinogens in Eur-
ope occurred in ancient times, when they were
used almost exclusively in witchcraft and divina-
tion. The major plants involved — Thorn Apple,
Mandrake, Henbane, Belladonna — belong to the

Nightshade family. The fungus Ergot, a parasite
on rye, frequently poisoned entire regions if acci-
dentally milled into the flour. Such attacks led
hundreds of citizens to go mad and suffer hallu-
cinations, often causing permanent insanity, gang-
rene, or death. This plague was known as St.
Anthony’s fire. Although Ergot was apparently
never purposefully used in medieval Europe as a
hallucinogen, there are suggestions that the Eleu-
sinian mysteries of ancient Greece were associated
with this fungal genus.

The famous and widely employed Kava-kava is
not a hallucinogen but has been classified as a
hypnotic narcotic.

It is in the New World that the number and
cultural significance of hallucinogenic plants are
overwhelming, dominating every phase of life
among the aboriginal peoples.

There were some hallucinogenic species in the
West Indies. In fact, the early indigenous popula-
tions used mainly the snuff known as Cohoba;
and it is believed that this custom was imported
by Indians invading the Caribbean Islands from
the Orinoco regions of South America.

Similarly, North America (north of Mexico) is
quite poor in hallucinogens. Various species of
Datura were employed rather widely, but most in-
tensely in the Southwest. The Indians of the region
of Texas and adjacent areas used the Red Bean or
Mescal Bean as the basis of a vision-seeking cere-
mony. In northern Canada, Indians chewed the
roots of Sweet Flag as medicine and supposedly
also for the hallucinogenic effects.

Mexico represents without a doubt the world’s
richest area in diversity and use of hallucinogens
in aboriginal societies — a phenomenon difficult
to understand in view of the comparatively mod-
est number of species comprising the flora of the
country. Without any question the Peyote cactus
is the most important sacred hallucinogen,
although other cactus species are still used in
northern Mexico as minor hallucinogens for spe-
cial magico-religious purposes. Of almost equal
religious importance in early Mexico and surviv-
ing until today in religious rituals are mush-
rooms, known to the Aztecs as Teonanacatl. At
least twenty-four species of these fungi are em-
ployed at the present time in southern Mexico.
Ololiuqui, the seeds of Morning Glories, repre-

Top: At the Shiva Temple of Pashupatinath near Kathmandu, Nepal, Indian
yogis smoke Marijuana in preparation for the arduous body practice and
meditation.

Below: Visions revealed by hallucinogens can be subsequently processed
and rendered artistically. In this way the experience is carried into and con-
nected with everyday life. ( Hallucigenia by Christian Ratsch, watercolor, circa
1993 )

sents another hallucinogen of great importance
in Aztec religion and is still employed in south-
ern Mexico. There are many hallucinogens of
secondary importance: Toloache and other spe-
cies of the Datura group; the Mescal Bean or
Frijolillo in the north; Pipiltzintzintli of the
Aztecs; the diviner’s sage now known as Hierba
de la Pastora; Genista among the Yaqui Indi-
ans; Piule, Sinicuichi, Zacatechichi, the puffballs

known by the Mixtecs as Gi’-i-Wa; and many
others.

South America ranks a close second to Mexico
in the number, variety, and deep magico-religious
significance of hallucinogens. The Andean cul-
tures had half a dozen species of Brugmansias,
known as Borrachero, Campanula, Floripondio,
Huanto, Haucacachu, Maicoa, Toe, Tongo, etc.
In Peru and Bolivia a columnar cactus called San
Pedro or Aguacolla is the basis of the drink
cimora, used in a vision-seeking ceremony Ma-
puche Indian witch doctors (who are mostly
female) of Chile formerly employed a hallucino-
genic tree of the Nightshade family — Latue or
Arbol de los Brujos. Research has indicated the
use in various parts of the Andes of the rare shrub
Taique (Desfontainia), the mysterious Shanshi,
and the fruits of Hierba Loca and Taglli, both of
the Heath family. Most recently, a type of Petunia
has been reported as an intoxicant used in Ecua-
dor. In the Orinoco and parts of the Amazon, a
powerful snuff called Yopo or Niopo is made
from the toasted seeds of a tree of the legume

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Notwithstanding the greater age of cultures and the
widespread use of hallucinogens lathe Eastern
Hemisphere, the number of species; so used star
greatenathe Western Hemisphere.. Anthropologists
have explained.This.disparity on culturalgfourids.
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difference between the two hemispheres in the num-
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Hallucinogenic plants, as well as their uses^ are

Widespread, as shpwi^by this map. There are,
nevertheless, significant geographical gaps in their

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There are few cultures in the Western Hemisphere that
did not value at least one hallucinogenic plant in
magico-religio.us ceremonies. Many cultures had
several. In addition to hallucinogens, a number of
otherwise psychoactive plants shared the honors:
Tobacco, Coca, Guayusa, Yoco. Guaranca. Some of
these — especially Tobacco and Coca— rose to exalted
positions in the sacred native pharmacopoeias. These
major hallucinogens are culturally significant in the
areas indicated by the symbols.

Hyoscyamus spp.

Amanita muscaria
Atropa belladonna
Cannabis sativa
Claviceps purpurea
Datura spp.

Tabernanthe iboga
Anadenanthera peregrina
Anadenanthera colubrina
Banisteriopsis caapi
Brugmansia spp.

Lophophora williamsii
Psiiocybe spp.

Turbina corymbosa et Ipomoea violacea
Virola spp.

Duboisia spp.

& $ <§ $ ^ Q o

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"•JL «

Right: Shamans remain the guardians of wisdom concerning the magical ef-
fects of the psychoactive plants. This photograph was taken at the holy
mountain Kalinchok (4,000 m) in the Himalayas of Nepal.

family. The Indians of northern Argentina take a
snu ff — Cebil or Villca — prepared from seeds of a
species closely related to Yopo. Perhaps the most
important lowland hallucinogen in South America
is Ayahuasca, Caapi, Natema, Pinde, or Yaje. Em-
ployed ceremonially in the western Amazon and
in several localities on the Pacific coastal areas of
Colombia and Ecuador, it is made basically from
several species of lianas of the Malpighia family.
Brunfelsia, a member of the Nightshade family,
known widely in the westernmost Amazon as
Chiricaspi, is taken for hallucinatory purposes.

There are more plants utilized as hallucinogens
in the New World than in the Old. Nearly 130
species are known to be used in the Western
Hemisphere, whereas in the Eastern Hemisphere
the number reaches roughly 50. Botanists have no
reason to presume that the flora of the New World
is richer or poorer than that of the Old in plants
with hallucinogenic properties.

D LANT LEXICON

The plant lexicon includes basic de-
scriptions, primarily botanical in
nature, of ninety-seven plants that
are known to have a hallucinogenic
or psychoactive effect.

Emphasis is given to plants that
are known from the literature, field
experience, and/or laboratory evi-
dence to have definite psychoactive
effects. Some species that are re-
ported to have “narcotic” or “intox-
icating” uses are included as well.

The plants are arranged alphabe-
tically according to the Latin name
of the genus. This order has been
followed in view of the many differ-
ent vernacular names in the great
variety of native languages. If a par-
ticular name is not listed, it may be
sought in the index of vernacular
names on pages 32-33 or at the end
of the book where these epithets are
cross-referenced.

Inasmuch as this volume is writ-
ten for the general reader, the bota-
nical descriptions are intentionally
brief, stressing the obvious and most

easily visible characteristics of the
plant. Whenever space permits, ad-
ditional information of historical,
ethnological, phytochemical, and,
very occasionally, psychopharma-
cological interest is added. In this
way, an attempt has been made in
this introductory lexicon to give as
broad an interdisciplinary view as
possible. The illustrations in the lex-
icon are of two kinds: some of them
are watercolors made whenever
possible from living plant material
or herbarium specimens. Most are
direct reproductions of color photo-
graphs. A number of the plants de-
picted here are illustrated for the
first time.

The purpose of the lexicon is
manifestly to help guide the reader
more easily into the admittedly
complex array of facts and stories
that comprise only a small fraction
of the extensive knowledge from
many fields concerning these plants
that native peoples around the world
have considered plants of the gods.

The botanical investigation of medicinal
plants has, over the years, become
more and more exact and sophisticated.
In 1 543, the writer of one of the most
beautifully illustrated herbals, Leonard
Fuchs, presented this accurate sketch
of Datura stramonium, the Thorn Apple
(left). Some three hundred years later,
Kohler, in his Medizinal Pflanzen, pub-
lished a more detailed pharmacognostic
rendering of this very important thera-
peutic plant (center). In the 125 years
since the establishment of Linnaeus’s
herbarium and the binomial system of
nomenclature, our herbaria have greatly
enhanced the understanding of the
morphological variation of vegetal
species through the collection of dried
specimens around the world. The third
illustration depicts a typical herbarium
specimen of the Thorn Apple repre-
senting the kind of material that now
authenticates botanical identification.
Modern technology (for example, the
electron-scanning microscope) is mak-
ing available morphological details,
such as the leaf surface hairs of the
Thorn Apple, which provide greater ac-
curacy in the work of plant identification.

Index and Key
to the Plant Lexicon

Ninety-seven hallucinogenic plants are illu-
strated and described on the following pages
(34-60).

The lexicon is in alphabetical order by genus
name. Each text in the lexicon includes the fol-
lowing information in its heading:

• Genus, author, and, in brackets, the number of
species known to exist in the genus.

. Botanical name of the species shown. The
species known to contain hallucinogenic
properties or to be used as hallucinogens will
be found in the reference section “Overview of
Plant Use,” pages 65-80, which is organized
by common name. This reference section/
chart provides the botanical names of the
plants and describes the history, ethnography,
context, purpose of usage, and preparation,
as well as chemical components and effects.

• Plant family.

• Reference number.

• Geographical distribution of the genus.
Common names are listed here below with the

number designating each plant's location in the
lexicon.

Acacia

Agara

Aguacolla

Ajuca

Angel's Trumpet

11, 12

Arbol de Campanilla

Arbol de los Brujos

Axocatzin

Ayahuasca

9, 93

Aztec Dream Grass

Badoh

Badoh Negro

Bakana

24, 84

Belladonna

Bhang

Biak-Biak

Black Henbane

Blood-Red Angel's Trumpet

Blue Meanies

Blue Water Lily

Borrachero

11, 12,30,

Bovista

Brunfelsia

Caapi

9, 93

Caapi-Pinima

Cahua

Calamus

Cawe

Cebil

Cebolleta

Chacruna

Chacruna Bush

Chalice Vine

Channa

Charas

Chautle

Chichipe

Chilicote

Chiricaspi

Chiric-Sanango

Cohoba

Coleus

Colorines

34, 88

Common Reed

Conocybe

Copelandia

Coral Bean

Coral Tree

Cowhage

Cumala Tree

Dacha

Dagga

Dama da Noite

Dark-rimmed Mottlegill

Datura

Deadly Nightshade

Diviner’s Sage

Dog Grass

Dutra

El Ahijado

El Macho

El Nene

Epena

Ereriba

Ergot

Esakuna

False Peyote

Fang-K’uei

Flag Root

Floripondio

11, 12

Fly Agaric

Frijoles

Galanga

Ganja

Genista

Giganton

Gi'-i-Sa-Wa

Gi’-i-Wa

Golden Angel’s Trumpet

Hashish

Hawaiian Wood Rose

Hemp

Henbane

40,41

Hierba de la Pastora

Hierbadela Virgen

Hierba Loca

Hikuli

Hikuli Mulato

Hikuli Rosapara

Hikuli Suname

Hikuri

Hikuri Orchid

Hongo de San Isidro

Hoop-petticoat

Huacacachu

11, 12

Huanto

11, 12

Huedhued

Hueipatl

Huilca

Iboga

Jambur

Jimsonweed

Jurema Tree

Kanna

Kieli

Kieri

Kif

Koribo

Kougued

Kratom

Kuma Mushroom

Kwashi

Lady of the Night

Latue

Latuy

Lemongrass

Siberian Motherwort

Liberty Cap

Sinicuichi

Lion’s Tail

Straw Flower

Mace

Sweet Calomel

Maconha

Sweet Flag

Magic Mushroom

76,79

Syrian Rue

Maicoa

11, 12

Tabaco del Diablo

Maiden's Acacia

Tabernaemontana

Malva Colorada

Tagili

Mammillaria

Taique

Manaka

Takini

Mandrake

Ta Ma

Maraba

Tamu

Marijuana

Tecomaxochitl

Marijuanillo

Teonanacatl

Mashihiri

Tepescohuite

Matwu

Thle-pelakano

Mescal

Thorn Apple

Mescal Bean

Tlililtzin

Mescal Button

Toe

Morning Glory

Toloache

Nightshade

Toloatzin

Ninfa

Tonga

11, 12

Nonda

To-shka

Nutmeg

Totubjansush

Nyakwana

Tsuwiri

Ololiuqui

Tupa

Paguando

Turkestan Mint

Painted Nettle

Tzompanquahuitl

Palqui

Villca

Petunia

Voacanga

Peyote Cactus

Wavy Cap

Peyote Cimarron

Wichowaka

Peyote de San Pedro

Wichurl

Peyotiilo

Wichuriki

Pincushion Cactus

24, 53

Wild Dagga

Pipiltzintzintli

Wood Rose

Pitallito Cactus

Xtabentum

Pituri

Yahutli

Pituri Bush

Yaje

Piule

43, 81

Yakee

Poison Bush

Yellow Flenbane

Pokeberry

Yopo

Quetzalaxcchiacatl

Yun-shih

Rape dos Indios

Zacatechichi

Red Bean

Red Canary Grass

Reed Grass

Saguaro

Sanango

San Isidro

San Pedro Cactus

Scopolia

Screw Pine

Shang-la

Shanin

Shanshi

She-to

Siberian Lion’s Tail

A South American Indian harvests a even millennia. The Indians caution
plant of the gods, a Blood-Red An- against the thoughtless use of this
gel’s Trumpet (Brugmansia sangui- plant, which causes such strong
nea). This alkaloid-rich plant has hallucinations and delirium that only

been cultivated and used for psy- experienced shamans can use it for

choactive purposes for centuries or divination and healing.

ACACIA Mill. (750-800)

Acacia maidenii F von Muell.
Maiden’s Acacia

Leguminosae (Pea Family)

Australia

ACORUS L. (2)

Acorus calamus L.

Sweet Flag

Araceae (Arum Family)

Temperate and warm zones
2 of both hemispheres

AMANITA L. (50-60)

Amanita muscaria (L. ex Fr.) Pers.
Fly Agaric

Amanitaceae

Europe, Africa, Asia,

3 Americas

ANADENANTHERA Speg. (2)

Anadenanthera colubruna
(Vellozo) Brennan
Cebil, Villca

Leguminosae (Pea Family)
Northwest Argentina

The genus Acacia is widely dis-
tributed throughout the tropical
and subtropical regions of the
world. It encompasses for the
most part medium-sized trees
with pinnate, occasionally
smooth leaves. The flowers
grow in clusters and the fruit is
pea-like. Many acacias are a
traditional additive to psycho-
active products, such as betel,
beer, balche, pituri, and pulque.
Some of the species are suited
for the preparation of Ayahuas-
ca analogs. Numerous Austra-
lian species (A. maidenii,

A. phlebophylla, A. simplicifolia)
contain higher concentrations of
DMT in their bark and leaves.

Acacia maidenii, a beautiful
erect tree with a silvery splen-
dor, contains different trypta-
mines. The bark contains
0.36% DMT. The leaves are
usable as a DMT-delivering
component of Ayahuasca ana-
logs. These acacias are easy to
cultivate in temperate climates
such as in California and south-
ern Europe.

Some evidence, although weak
and indirect, suggests that the
Cree Indians of northwestern
Canada may occasionally chew
the rootstalk of Sweet Flag for its
psychoactive effects.

Sweet Flag is a semiaquatic
herb with a long, aromatic,
creeping rootstock producing
shoots of erect, linear, swordlike
leaves up to 6ft (2 m) in length.
The tiny flowers are borne on a
solid, lateral, greenish yellow
spadix. The rootstalk or rhizome
contains an essential oil re-
sponsible for the plant’s medic-
inal value.

It has been suggested that the
active principles are a-asarone
and p-asarone. There is a struc-
tural resemblance between
asarone and mescaline, a psy-
choactive alkaloid. No evidence
has ever been produced, how-
ever, that asarone can be asso-
ciated with psychotomimetic
activity.

Amanita muscaria is a beautiful
mushroom growing in thin for-
ests usually under birches, firs,
and young pines. It may attain a
height of 8-9 in. (20-23 cm).

The somewhat viscid, ovate,
hemispheric, and finally almost
flat cap measures 3-8 in. (8-
20cm) when mature. There are
three varieties: one with a blood-
red cap with white warts found in
the Old World and northwestern
North America; a yellow or or-
ange type with yellowish warts
common in eastern and central
North America; and a white
variety that is found in Idaho.
The cylindrical stem, which has
a bulbous base, is white, Vfe-1 in.
(1-3cm) thick, with a conspicu-
ous cream-white ring covered
basically with encircling scales.
The white valve adheres to the
base of the stem. The gills vary
from white to cream color or
even lemon yellow.

This mushroom, perhaps
man’s oldest hallucinogen, has
been identified with Soma of
ancient India.

This tree grows 9-50 ft (3-1 8 m)
and has an almost black bark
often adorned with conical
thorns. The leaves are finely lo-
cular and reach up to 1 ft (30 cm)
long. The yellowish white flow-
ers are round. The leathery dark
brown fruit pods grow to 1 ft
(35 cm) long and contain very
flat red-brown seeds s h to 1 in.
(1-2 cm) wide, with rounded to
right angles.

The seeds have been used as
a hallucinogen by the Indians of
the southern region of the An-
des for approximately 4,500
years. They are either worked
into a snuff powder, smoked, or
used as an additive for beer.
Primarily they are used in
shamanism.

The seeds of the Cebil or Vill-
ca contain tryptamines, espe-
cially bufotenine.

ANADENANTHERA Speg. (2)

ARGYREIA Lour.

ARIOCARPUS Scheidw.

nadenanthera peregrina (L.) Speg.
opo

Leguminosae (Pea Family)

Tropical zones of South
5 America, West Indies

Argyreia nervosa (Burman f.) Bojer,
Hawaiian Wood Rose
Convovulaceae
(Morning Glory Family)

India, Southeast Asia,

6 Hawaii

Ariocarpus retusus Scheidw.
False Peyote

Cactaceae (Cactus Family)
Mexico, Texas

and Waika, for the production of
Epena. The shamanic snuff is
made from cultivated trees in
addition to other substances
and plant ashes. The seeds
contain mostly W.W-Dimethyl-
tryptamine (DMT) as well as
5-MeO-DMT and other trypta-
mines. The shaman of the rain
forest people of the Orinoco re-
gion (for example, the Piaroa)
cultivate this tree which is not
native to that area. That way
they secure their snuff supplies.

Anadenanthera peregrina is a
mimosa-like tree, mainly of open
grasslands, attaining a height of
65ft (20m) and with a trunk 2ft
(60cm) in diameter. The black-
ish bark is coarsely armed with
conical mucronate projections.
The leaves have from 1 5 to 30
pairs of pinnae with many very
small hairy leaflets. Many min-
ute white flowers in spherical
heads arranged in terminal or
axillary clusters comprise the
inflorescence. Flat, thin, glossy
black, roundish seeds occur in
rough, woody pods, from 3 to 1 0
in a pod.

A potent hallucinogenic snuff
is made from the beans of Ana-
denanthera peregrina in the Or-
inoco basin, where it is called
Yopo. Its former shamanic and
ritual use in the West Indies, un-
der the name Cohoba, was re-
ported as early as 1496. Sadly,
this use has disappeared due to
the exploitation of the native
people.

The tree native to the edges of
the large forested areas of
Guyana is still used by different
tribes, primarily the Yanomano

The mature stems of this vigor-
ously growing twining bindweed
climb up to 30ft (10m) high and
carry a latexlike milk. The
stemmed, heart-shaped leaves
are finely haired and have a
silvery appearance due to a
dense white down that covers
the young stems and the leaf
undersides. The funnel-shaped
flowers are violet or lavender
and are carried in the leaf axis.
Their sepals are finely haired.
The round fruit are berrylike and
contain smooth brown seeds. In
each seed capsule there are 1-
4 seeds.

The plant originates in India,
where it has been used medic-
inally since ancient times. A tra-
ditional use as an entheogen
has not yet been discovered.
Phytochemical research is to
thank for the awareness of its
potent psychedelic constitution.
The seeds contain 0.3% Ergot
alkaloids (ergine and lysergic-
acid-amides). Most psycho-
nauts describe LSD-like effects
after taking 4-8 seeds.

These plants are small, grayish
green to purplish gray or brown-
ish cactuses, 4-6 in. (10-1 5 cm)
in diameter. They hardly appear
above the ground. Often called
Living Rocks, they can easily be
mistaken for rocks in the stony
desert where they grow. Their
horny or fleshy, umbricated,
three-angled tubercles are
characteristic of the genus.
Dense masses of hair often fill

open.

Indians in northern and cen-
tral Mexico consider A. fissura-
tus and A. retusus as ‘‘false
Peyotes.”

These species of cactus, re-
lated to Lophophora, are typical
desert plants, growing preferen-
tially in the open sun in sandy or
rocky stretches.

Several psychoactive pheny-
lethylamine alkaloids have been
isolated from A. fissuratus and
A. retusus.

the areoles. The flowers vary
from white to pink and purplish
and measure approximately
2'A in. (6cm) long and up to
1 Vz in. (4cm) wide when fully

ATROPA L. (4)

Atropa belladonna L.

Deadly Nightshade
Solanaceae
(Nightshade Family)

Europe, North Africa, Asia

This much-branched perennial
herb up to 3 ft (90 cm) tall may be
glabrous or pubescent-glandu-
lar. The ovate leaves attain a
length of 8 in. (20cm). The soli-
tary, drooping, bell-shaped,
brown-purple flowers, approxi-
mately 1 Vs in. (3cm) long, pro-
duce shiny black berries 1 ’/&-
1 Vz in. (3-4 cm) in diameter. All
parts of the plant contain potent
alkaloids. It grows in thickets
and woods on lime soils and is
naturalized especially near old
buildings and hedges.

It is believed that Belladonna
figured as an important ingredi-
ent in many of the witches’
brews of antiquity. There are, of
course, numerous records of
accidental and purposeful poi-
soning associated with the
Deadly Nightshade.

This plant played a major role
in the war of the Scots under
Duncan I against the Norwegian
king Sven Canute about a. d.
1035. The Scots destroyed the
Scandinavian army
by sending them food and beer
to which “Sleepy Nightshade”
had been added.

The main psychoactive con-
stituent is atropine but lesser
amounts of scopolamine and
trace amounts of minor tropane
alkaloids are also present. The
total alkaloid content in the
leaves is 0.4%, in the roots
0.5%, and in the seeds 0.8%.

In addition to the usual Bella-
donna there is a rare, yellow
blooming variety (var, lutea) as
well as little known related kinds.
The Indian Belladonna (Atropa
acuminata Royle ex Lindl.) is
cultivated for pharmaceutical
purposes because of its high
content of scopolamine. In Asia
the Caucasian Belladonna
(Atropa caucasia Kreyer) and
theTurkmenish Belladonna
(Atropa komarovii Blin. et Shal)
are found. Belladonna is still
cultivated for the pharmaceuti-
cal production of atropine.

BANISTERIOPSIS (20-30)

C.B. Robinson et Small
Banisteriopsis caapi (Spruce ex Gri-
seb.) Morton, Ayahuasca
Malpighiaceae
(Malpighia Family)

Tropical zones of northern
9 South America, West Indies

BOLETUS Dill, ex Fr. (225)

Boletus manicus Heim
Kuma Mushroom

Boletaceae

Cosmopolitan

These giant forest lianas are the
basis of an important hallucino-
genic drink (Ayahuasca) ritually
consumed in the western half of
the Amazon Valley and by iso-
lated tribes on the Pacific slopes
of the Colombian and Ecuador-
ean Andes. The bark of Banis-
teriopsis caapi and B. inebrians,
prepared in cold water or after
long boiling, may be taken alone,
but various plant additives—
especially the leaves of Diplop-
teris cabrerana, known as Oco-
Yaje, and of Psychotria viridis—
are often used to alter the effects
of the hallucinogenic drink.

Both species are lianas with
smooth, brown bark and dark
green, chartaceous, ovate-lan-
ceolate leaves up to about 7 in.
(18cm) in length, 2-3 in. (5-
8 cm) wide. The inflorescence is
many-flowered. The small flow-
ers are pink or rose-colored. The
fruit is a samara with wings
about 1 3 /a in. (3.5 cm) long.

B. inebrians differs from B. caa-
pi in its thicker ovate, more at-
tenuate leaves and in the shape
of the samara wings. The liana
contains MAO inhibitors.

Several species of Boletus are
involved in the curious “mush-
room madness” of the Kuma of
New Guinea. Boletus reayi, one
of these, is characterized by a
hemispherical, strong brownish
red cap that is cream-yellow at
the periphery; it measures from
% to 1 Vz in. (2 to 4cm) in dia-
meter. The flesh of the cap is
lemon-colored. The stipe varies
from orange at the top, to a
marbled green and gray-rose in
the middle, to a green at the
base. The spores, which are
elongated ellipsoidal, have a
yellow membrane but are olive-
colored within.

B manicus is a well-known
species that, as its name im-
plies, has somewhat toxic prop-
erties, (mania = insanity). Hallu-
cinogenic properties have not
yet been proven.

Goiden Angel’s Trumpet
Solan aceae
(Nightshade Family)

Western South America

BRUGMANSIA Pers.

Brugmansia sanguinea
(Ruiz et Pavon) D. Don
Blood-Red Angel’s Trumpet
Solanaceae
(Nightshade Family)

South America,

12 Colombia to Chile

Closely related to Datura, the
species of Brugmansia are ar-
borescent, and it is suspected
that they are all cultigens un-
known in the wild. Biologically
very complex, all species ap-
pear to have been used as hal-
lucinogens for millennia. Brug-
mansia suaveolens and
B. insignis occur in warmer
parts of South America, espe-
cially in the western Amazonia,
where they are employed alone
or mixed with other plants,
usually under the name Toe.
Most of the species, however,
prefer the cool, wet highlands
above 6,000 ft. (1,830 m). The
most widespread species in the
Andes is Brugmansia aurea,
with both yellow and, more com-
monly, white flower forms. In the
horticultural literature it has fre-
quently been misidentified as
Brugmansia (or Datura) arbor-
ea. which is in reality a much
less common plant. Brugmansia
aurea is a shrub or small tree up
to 30ft (9m) tall with oblong-el-
liptic, often minutely hairy
leaves, the blade measuring 4-
1 6 in. (10-40 cm) long, 2— 6Vi in.

(5-1 6cm) wide, borne on a pe-
tiole up to 5 in. (13cm) long. The
flowers are nodding, not wholly
pendulous, usually 7—9 in. (18-
23cm) long and very fragrant,
especially in the evening. The
trumpet-shaped corolla flaring
broadly at the mouth is white or
golden yellow, its slender basal
part completely enclosed by the
calyx, its teeth 1 1&-2V4 in. (4-
6cm) long, recurving. The eion-
gate-ovoid, smooth, green fruit,
which is variable in size, re-
mains fleshy, never becoming
hard or woolly. The angular,
blackish or brownish seeds are
relatively large, measuring
about 'A by % in. (12 by 9mm).

In addition to their use as hallu-
cinogens, all species have
played major roles as medicines
for a large spectrum of ills,
especially in the treatment of
rheumatic pains. They contain
potent hallucinogenic tropane
alkaloids.

This perennial Brugmansia is
heavily branched and reaches 6-
1 6 ft (2-5 m), developing a very
woody trunk. The gray-green
leaves are furry and roughly ser-
rated at the edge. The Blood-Red
Angel’s Trumpet does not emit
scents in the night. Usually the
flowers are green at the base,
yellow in the middle, and have a
red edge around the top. There
are also green-red, pure yellow,
yellow-red, and almost comple-
tely red varieties. The smooth
oval fruits are bulbous in the cen-
ter and pointed at the ends and
are usually partially protected by
the dried calyx. In Colombia this
powerful shaman plant was ri-
tually used in the cult of the sun of
pre-Columbian times. The plant
is still used as a hallucinogen by
the shamans and Curanderos of
Ecuador and Peru.

The entire plant contains tro-
pane alkaloids. The flowers
contain essentially atropine and
only traces of scopolamine
(hyoscine). In the seeds ap-
proximately 0.17% total
alkaloids are present; of those,
78% are scopolamine.

Several species of Brunfelsia
have medicinal and psycho-
active roles in the Colombian,
Ecuadorean, and Peruvian
Amazon as well as in Guyana.
Scopoletine has been found in
Brunfelsia, but this compound is
not known to be ps.ychoactive.

B. chiricaspi and B. grandi-
flora are shrubs or small trees
reaching a height of about 10ft
(3m). The oblong or lanceolate
leaves, measuring 21 / 2-12 in.
long (6-30 cm), are scattered
along the branchlets. The flow-
ers have a tubular corolla, longer
than the bell-shaped calyx and
measuring about 4-4 3 /4 in. (ID-
12 cm) across, blue to violet,
fading with age to white. B. chir-
icaspi differs from B. grandiflora
in having much larger leaves,
longer leaf stalks, a few-flow-
ered inflorescence, and de-
flexed corolla lobes. B. chiricas-
pi occurs in the west Amazonia
of Colombia, Ecuador, and
Peru. B. grandiflora is wide-
ranging in western South Amer-
ica from Venezuela to Bolivia.
Brunfelsias serve as Ayahuasca
additives.

BRUNFELSIA L.

Brunfelsia grandiflora D. Don
Brunfelsia

Solanaceae
(Nightshade Family)

Tropical zones of northern
1 3 Sou th America, West Indies

CACALIA L, (50)

Cacalia cordifolia L. fil.

Matwu

Compositae (Sunflower Family)

East Asia, North America,
14 Mexico

A small shrubby climber,

Cacalia cordifolia has dusty-
puberulent, six-angled stems.
The leaves are thin, ovate, and
basally cordate, 1 V 2 - 3 V 3 in. (4-
9 cm) long. The flowering head
is subsessile or pedicellate,
about %in. (1 cm) long.

This and several other spe-
cies of Cacalia have been re-
ferred to in parts of northern
Mexico as Peyote and may pos-
sibly have once been employed
for hallucinatory purposes. In
Mexico Cacalia cordifolia is a
presumed aphrodisiac and cure
for sterility. An alkaloid has been
reported from the plant, but
there is no evidence of a chemi-
cal constituent with psycho-
active properties.

This little researched plant is
apparently often confused with
Calea zacatechichi.

CAESALPINIA L. (100)

Caesalpinia sepiaria Roxb.

Yun-Shih

Leguminosae (Pea Family)

Tropical and warm zones of
15 both hemispheres

CALEA L. (95)

Calea zacatechichi Schlecht.

Dog Grass

Compositae (Sunflower Family)
Tropical zones of northern
16 South America, Mexico

CANNABIS L. (3)

Cannabis sativa L.

Hemp

Cannabaceae (Hemp Family)
Warm-temperate zones,

1 7 worldwide

Known in Mexico as Zacatechi-
chi (“bitter grass”), this incon-
spicuous shrub, occurring from
Mexico to Costa Rica, has been
important in folk medicine. It has
also been valued as an
insecticide.

Recent reports suggest that
the Chontal Indians of Oaxaca
take a tea of the crushed, dried
leaves as a hallucinogen. Be-
lieving in visions seen in
dreams, Chontal medicine men,
who assert that Zacatechichi
clarifies the senses, call the
plant Thle-pelakano, or “leaf of
god.”

Calea zacatechichi is a heav-
ily branching shrub with
triangular-ovate, coarsely
toothed leaves 3 /4-2V2 in. (2-
6.5 cm) long. The inflorescence
is densely many-flowered
(usually about 12).

No constituent with hallucina-
tory properties has as yet been
isolated from C. zacatechichi.

The plant contains germacra-
nolides. The subtile psychoac-
tive effect can be described as
dreamlike

Cannabis sativa has become
very polymorphic, but it is
usually a rank, robust, erect,
loosely branched annual herb,
sometimes attaining a height of
18 ft (5.4 m). The sexes are nor-
mally on separate plants, the
staminate weaker and dying
after shedding pollen, the pistil-
late stockier and more foliose.
The membranaceous leaves are
digitate, with 3 to 1 5 (usually 7
to 9) linear-lanceolate, serrated
segments commonly 21/4— 4in.
(6-1 0 cm) wide. The flowers are
borne in axillary or terminal
branches, dark green, yellow-
green, or brownish purple. The
fruit is an ovoid, slightly com-
pressed, often brownish akene
covered by a persistent calyx,
enveloped by an enlarged bract,
usually lacking a strong marbled
pattern; it is firmly attached to
the stalk without a definite ar-
ticulation. The seed is ovoid,
mostly Vs by Vfe in. (4 by 2mm).

Cannabis indica is pyramidal
or conical in form and under 4-
5ft (120-150 cm) in height.

Cannabis ruderalis is small
and is never cultivated.

Caesalpinia sepiaria or Yun-
Shih, a shrubby vine with retro-
rsely hooked spines, is reput-
edly used as a hallucinogen in
China. The roots, flowers, and
seeds also have value in folk
medicine.

The earliest Chinese herbal—
Pen-ts’-ao-ching— stated that
the “flowers could enable one to
see spirits and, when taken in
excess, cause one to stagger
madly.” If consumed over a long
period, they produce levitation
and “communication with the
spirits.”

This plant is an extensive
climber with pinnate leaves 9-
15 in. (23-38 cm) long and
linear-oblong leaflets in 8-12
pairs. The large, erect, un-
branched showy racemes, 21 in.
(53 cm) long, bear canary yellow
flowers. The smooth, elongate-
ovoid, pointed fruit has 4 to 8
ovoid, brown- and black-mottled
seeds, % in. (1 cm) long. An al-
kaloid of unknown structure has
been reported from Caesalpinia
sepiaria.

CARNEGIEA Britt, et Rose

Carnegiea gigantea (Engelm.) Britt.

et Rose

Saguaro

Cactaceae (Cactus Family)
Southwestern North
18 America, northern Mexico

CESTRUM L. (160)

Cestrum parqui L’Herit.
Lady of the Night
Solanaceae
(Nightshade Family)
Chile

CLAV1CEPS Tulasne (6)

Claviceps purpurea (Fr.)

Tulasne

Ergot

Clavicipitaceae

Temperate zones of Europe,
20 northern Africa, Asia,

North America

COLEUS Lour. (150)

Coleus blumei Benth.

Painted Nettle

Labiatae (Mint Family)

Tropical and warm zones of
21 Europe, Africa, Asia

This largest of the columnar
cactus plants, Saguaro, reach-
ing a height of some 40ft (12 m),
is a candelabra-branched "tree."
The many-ribbed stems and
branches attain a diameter of 1-
2Vi ft (30-75 cm). The spines
near the top of the plant are yel-
low-brown. Measuring 4-5 in.
(10-1 3 cm) in length, the white,
funnel-shaped flowers open
during the day. The fruit, red or
purple, is an ovoid or ellipsoid
berry splitting down the side into
two or three sections and mea-
suring 2 V 2 - 3 V 2 in. (6-9 cm) long.
The numerous small seeds are
black and shining.

Although there are no reports
of the Saguaro as a hallucino-
gen, the plant does contain
pharmacologically active alka-
loids capable of psychoactivity.

Carnegine, 5-hydroxycarne-
gine, and norcarnegine, plus
trace amounts of 3-methoxytyr-
amine and arizonine (atetrahy-
droquinoline base), have been
isolated from Saguaro.

The native people make a
wine from the pressed fruit.

Cestrum parqui has been used
medicinally and ritually for sha-
manic healing since pre-
Columbian times by the Ma-
puche in southern Chile. The
plant has the power to withstand
attacks of sorcery or black ma-
gic. The dried leaves of Cestrum
parqui are smoked.

The shrub grows to 5ft (1.5m)
and has small, lanceolate matte
green leaves. The bell-shaped
yellow flowers have five pointy
petals. They hang from the stem
in clusters. The flowers bloom in
Chile between October and No-
vember and release a powerful,
heady aroma. The plant has
small oval berries that are a
shiny black color.

Cestrum parqui contains so-
lasonine, a glycoside steroid-al-
kaloid, as well as solasonidine
and a bitter alkaloid (Parquin’s
formula C 2 iH 3 gNOg), which has
a similar action to strychnine or
atropine.

Ergot is a fungal disease of cer-
tain grasses and sedges, pri-
marily of rye. Meaning “spur,”
Ergot refers to the sclerotium or
fruiting body of an ascomycete
or sac fungus. The spur is a
purplish or black, curved, club-
shaped growth V 2 - 2 V 2 in. (1—
6cm) long, which parasitically
replaces the endosperm of the
kernel. The fungus produces
psychoactive and toxic alka-
loids.

There are two distinct periods
in the life cycle of this fungus; an
active and a dormant stage. The
Ergot or spur represents the
dormant stage. When the spur
falls to the ground, the Ergot
sprouts globular heads called
ascocarps from which grow
asci, each with threadlike as-
cospores that are disseminated
when the asci rupture.

In the Middle Ages and earlier
in Europe, especially where rye
was used in bread-making,
whole areas frequently were
poisoned, suffering plagues of
ergotism, when fungus-infected
rye kernels were milled into
flour.

Two species of Coleus have sig-
nificance in Mexico. Related to
Salvia divinorum is La Hembra
(“the woman”); C. pumilus is El
Macho (“the man”); and two
forms of C. blumei are El Nene
(“the child”) and El Ahijado (“the
godson”). C. blumei attains a
height of 3ft (1 m) and has
ovate, marginally toothed leaves
up to 6 in. (15cm) in length; the
bottom surface is finely hairy,
the upper surface usually with
large dark red blotches. The
more or less bell-shaped blue or
purplish flowers, measuring
about V 2 in. (1 cm) long, are
borne in long lax, whorled
racemes up to 1 2 in. (30cm) in
length.

Recently, salvinorine-like sub-
stances (diterpene) were dis-
covered. The chemical structure
has not yet been determined. It
is possible that by drying or
burning the diterpene, its che-
mical structure is modified into
potent material. The chemistry
and pharmacology must be re-
searched further.

CONOCYBE (40)

Conocybe siligineoides Heim
Conocybe

Agaricaceae (Bolbitiaceae)

(Agaric Family)

Cosmopolitan

Conocybe siligineoides has
been reported as one of the
sacred intoxicating mushrooms
of Mexico. Psilocybine has not
as yet been isolated from this
species, but Conocybe
cyanopus of the United States
has been shown to contain this
psychoactive alkaloid.

This beautiful mushroom, up
to about 3 in. (8cm) tall, living on
rotting wood, has a cap up to
1 in. (2.5cm) in diameter that is
fawn-orange-red, with a deeper
orange at the center. The gills
are saffron-colored or brownish
orange with chrome yellow
spores.

Many species of the genus
Conocybe contain psilocybine,
are psychoactive, and are used
ritually. Recently a rudimentary
cult around Tamu (a Conocybe
species, “Mushroom of Aware-
ness”) has been discovered.

Conocybe siligeneoides is an
obscure mushroom which has
not been found or analyzed
again since its first description.

CORIARIA L. (15)

Coriara thymifoiia HBKex Willd.
Shanshi

CORYPHANTHA (64)

(Engelm.) Lem.

Coryphantha compacta
(Engelm.) Britt, et Rose
Pincushion Cactus

Coriariaceae (Coriaria Family)

Southern Europe, northern
23 Africa, Asia; New Zealand;
Mexico to Chile

Cactaceae (Cactus Family)
Southwestern North
24 America, Mexico, Cuba

In the highest Andes from Co-
lombia to Chile, Coriaria thymi-
foiia adorns the highways with
its frondlike leaves. It has been
feared in the Andean countries
as a plant toxic to browsing ani-
mals. Human deaths have sup-
posedly followed ingestion of the
fruit. Reports from Ecuador,
nevertheless, suggest that the
fruit (shanshi) may be eaten to
induce an intoxication charac-
terized by sensations of soaring
through the air.

Coriaria thymifoiia is a shrub
usually up to 6ft (1.8m) tall. The
leaves are oblong-ovate, V 2 -
% in. (1-2 cm) in length, borne
on slender, arching lateral
branches. The small, dark pur-
ple flowers occur densely on
long drooping racemes. The
round purplish black fruit is
composed of five to eight com-
pressed fleshy parts, or carpels.
The whole shrub has a fernlike
appearance.

No psychoactive properties
have been isolated yet.

A small, solitary, globular but
somewhat flattened, spiny cac-
tus up to 3V* in. (8cm) in dia-
meter, Coryphantha compacta
grows in dry hilly and mountai-
nous regions. It is hardly visible
in the sandy soil where it occurs.
The radial spines are whitish,
1/2- 3 /4 in. (1-2 cm) in length; the
central spines are usually ab-
sent. The crowded tubercles are
arranged in 13 rows. Arising
from the center of the crown
either singly or in pairs, the yel-
low flowers measure up to 1 in.
(2.5cm) in length. The Tarahu-
mara of northern Mexico con-
sider Coryphantha compacta a
kind of Peyote. The plant, called
Bakana, is taken by shamans
and is respected and feared. It is
used as a substitute for Peyote.

Coryphantha palmerii has
likewise been reported as a hal-
lucinogen in Mexico. Various al-
kaloids, including the psychoac-
tive phenylethylamines, have
been isolated from several
species of Coryphantha: horde-
nine, calipamine, and macro-
merine.

CYMBOPOGON Sprengel (60)

Cymbopogon densiflorus Stapf
Lemongrass

Gramineae (Grass Family)

Warm zones of Africa and

25 Asia

Native medicine men in Tanza-
nia smoke the flowers of Cym-
bopogon densiflorus alone or
with tobacco to cause dreams
that they believe foretell the fu-
ture. The leaves and rhizomes,
pleasantly aromatic of citron,
are locally used as a tonic and
styptic.

This perennial grass has
stout, erect culms with linear to
linear-lanceolate leaves, basally
wide and rounded and tapering
to a fine point, 1 ft. (30 cm) in
length and ’/2-1 in. (1-2 .5cm) in
width. The flowering spikes are
slender, olive green to brownish.
This species grows in Gabon,
the Congo, and Malawi.

Little is known about the psy-
choactive properties of the
grass. The genus Cymbopogon
is rich in essential oils, and ster-
oidal substances have been
found in some species.

CYTISUS L.

(30) j DATURA L.

(14-16) I DATURA L.

(14-16)

Cytisus canariensis (L.) 0. Kuntze
Genista

Datura innoxia Mill. (D. meteloides)
Toloache

Datura metel L.
Datura

Solanaceae

Leguminosae (Pea Family)

Southern Europe, northern
26 Africa, western Asia; Canary
Islands, Mexico

(Nightshade Family)

Tropical and warm-
27 temperature zones of both
hemispheres

(Nightshade Family)

Tropical and warm-
28 temperate zones of Asia
and Africa

Rarely are foreign plants incor
porated in ceremonial use in
aboriginal American societies.
Native to the Canary Islands,
Genista was introduced into
Mexico from the Old World,
where it has no record of use as
a hallucinogen. It apparently has
acquired magical use among
the Yaquf Indians of northern
Mexico, where medicine men
value the seed as a
hallucinogen.

A coarse, evergreen, much-
branched shrub up to 6ft (1 ,8 m)
tall, Cytisus canariensis bears
leaves with obovate or oblong,
hairy leaflets Vi-Vfc in. (.5-1 cm)
long. The fragrant, bright yellow
flowers, in terminal, many-flow-
ered, dense racemes, measure
about 14 in. (1 cm) in length. The
pods are hairy, Vr*k in. (1-
2cm) long.

Cytisus is rich in the lupine al-
kaloid cytisine, which is com-
mon in the Leguminosae. Cy-
stine has similar properties as
nicotine. For this reason, plants
that contain cystine are often
smoked as a substitute for
Tobacco.

The most extensive use of Da-
tura centers in Mexico and the
American Southwest, where the
most important psychoactive
species seems to be Datura in-
noxia. This is the famous To-
loache of Mexico, one of the
plants of the gods among the
Aztecs and other Indians. The
modern Tarahumara of Mexico
add the roots, seeds, and leaves
of D. innoxia to tesquino, a cere-
monial drink prepared from
maize. Mexican Indians believe
that, unlike Peyote, Toloache is
inhabited by a malevolent spirit.

Datura innoxia is a herbac-
eous perennial up to 3ft (1 m)
tall, grayish because of fine
hairs on the foliage; the leaves,
unequally ovate, repand or sub-
entire, measure up to 2 or 214 in.
(5cm) in length. The erect,
sweet-scented flowers, 514-9 in,
(14-23 cm) long, are white with
a 10-pointed corolla. The pen-
dant fruit is nearly globose, 2 in.
(5 cm) in diameter, covered with
sharp spines.

In the Old World, the most cul-
turally important species of Da-
tura for medicinal and hallucino-
genic use is D. metel.

Datura metel, native probably
to the mountainous regions of
Pakistan or Afghanistan west-
ward, is a spreading herb,
sometimes becoming shrubby,
3-6 ft (1-2 m) tall. The triangu-
lar-ovate, sinuate, and deeply
toothed leaves measure 514-
814 in. (14-22 cm) long, 3-
414 in. (8-1 1 cm) wide. The soli-
tary flowers, which may be pur-
ple, yellowish, or white, are tub-
ular, funnel- or trumpet-shaped,
almost circular when expanded,
may attain a length of 614in.
(17cm). The drooping, round
fruit, up to 214 in. (6cm) in dia-
meter, is conspicuously tuber-
culate or muricate, opening to
expose flat, light brown seeds.
The flowers are primarily violet
and grow at an angle or upright
to the sky.

All types of Datura contain the
hallucinogenic tropane alkaloids
scopolamine, hyosyamine and
someatropine.

DATURA L. (14-16)

Datura stramonium L.

Thorn Apple
Solanaceae
(Nightshade Family)

Tropical and moderate zones
29 of both hemispheres

This annual herb grows to about
4ft (1 .2m) and has many-forked
branches and branched, leafless
stems. The rich green leaves are
coarsely serrated. The funnel-
shaped flowers are 5-pointed,
stand erect, and open upward.
The common variety carries
white flowers that at 2-3 in. (6-
9 cm) long are among the smal-
lest of the Datura species. The
tatula variety has smaller violet
flowers. The green egg-shaped
fruit is covered with thorns and
stands erect. The flat, liver-
shaped seeds are black.

The origins of this powerful
hallucinogenic species of Thorn
Apple is uncertain and its bota-
nical history ardently argued
over. Some authors suggest that
Datura stramonium is an ancient
species that originates in the re-
gion of the Caspian Sea. Others
believe that Mexico or North
America is the original habitat.
Today the herb is found
throughout North, Central, and
South America; North Africa;
Central and Southern Europe; in
the near East; and in the
Himalayas.

DESFONTAINIA R. et P. (1-3)

Desfontainia spinosa R, et P.

Taique

Desfontainiaceae

Highlands of Central
30 America and South America

DUBOISIA R. Br. (3)

Duboisia hopwoodii F. v. Muell.

Pituri Bush
Solanaceae
(Nightshade Family)

Central Australia

ECHINOCEREUS Engelm. (75)

Echinocereus triglochidiatus En-
gelm.

Pitallito Cactus
Cactaceae (Cactus Family)
Southwestern North
32 America, Mexico

EPITHELANTHA Weber (3)

ex Britt, et Rose

Epithelantha micromeris (Engelm.)
Weber ex Britt, et Rose
Hikuli Mulato

Cactaceae (Cactus Family)
Southwestern North
33 America, Mexico

fllfSM

One of the least-known Andean
plants, Desfontainia spinosa is
sometimes assigned to a differ-
ent family: Loganiaceae or Po-
taliaceae. Botanists are not in
agreement as to the number of
species in the genus.

Desfontainia spinosa, a beau-
tiful shrub 1-6 ft (30cm-1.8m) in
height, has glossy green leaves,
resembling those of Christmas
holly, and tubular red flowers
with a yellow tip. The berry is
white or greenish yellow, glo-
bose, with many lustrous seeds.
It has been reported as a hallu-
cinogen from Chile and south-
ern Colombia. In Chile it is
known as Taique, in Colombia
as Borrachero (“intoxicator").

Colombian shamans of the
Kamsa tribe take a tea of the
leaves to diagnose disease or
“to dream.” Some medicine men
assert that they “go crazy” under
its influence. Nothing is as yet
known of the chemical constitu-
ents of Desfontainia.

In southern Chile Desfontai-
nia is used for shamanic pur-
poses similar to Latua pubiflora.

The branched evergreen shrub
with woody stems grows to ap-
proximately 6-9 ft(2.5-3m). Its
wood has a yellow color and a
distinct scent of vanilla. The green
leaves are lanceolate, with a con-
tinuous margin tapered at the pe-
tiole and are 4-5 in. long (1 2-
15cm). The flowers are white, oc-
casionally with rose speckles, and
bell-shaped (to 7 mm long) and
hang in clusters off the tips of the
branches. The fruit is a black ber-
ry with numerous tiny seeds.

The psychoactive Pituri has
been hedonisticallyand ritually
used by the Aborigines since their
settlerneigff Australia. The
leavR^ar§|athered in August
wljn^,Mp!f |ints are in flower.
Tir^pe mig up to dry or roasted
overafireTThey are either chewed
as Pituri or smoked in cigarettes
rolled with alkaline substances.

Duboisia hopwoodii contains
a variety of powerful and stimu-
lating but toxic alkaloids: pitur-
ine, dubosine, D-nor-nicotine,
and nicotine. The hallucinogenic
tropane alkaloids hyoscyamine
and scopolamine have been
discovered in the roots.

This spiny cactus, one of the so-
called false Peyotes of the Tara-
humara Indians of Chihuahua,
has acidic, edible fruit called Chi-
litos. Medicine men take Hikuli
Mulato to make their sight clearer
and to permit them to commune
with sorcerers. It is taken by run-
ners as a stimulant and “protec-
tor,” and the Indians believe that it
prolongs life. It is reportedly able
to drive evil people to insanity or
throw them from cliffs.

Alkaloids and triterpenes have
been reported from Epithelantha
micromeris. This very small,
globular cactus grows to a dia-
meter of 2VS> in. (6cm). The low
tubercles, Vis in. (2 mm) long, are
arranged in many spirals. The
numerous white spines almost
hide the tubercles. The lower ra-
dial spines measure Vie in.

(2 mm) long, the upper about
% in. (1 cm). The small flowers,
which arise from the center of the
plant in a tuft of wool and spines,
are whitish to pink , 1 U in. (5 mm)
broad. The clavate fruit, %-Vfe in.
(9-1 3 mm) long, bears rather
large, shining black seeds, Vie in.
(2 mm) across.

The Tarahumara Indians of Chi-
huahua consider two species as
false Peyotes or Hikuri of the
mountainous areas. They are
not so strong as Ariocarpus,
Coryphantha, Epithelantha,
Mammillaria , or Lophophora.
Echinocereus salmdyckianus is
a low, caespitose cactus with
decumbent, yellow-green stems
%-1 V 2 in. (2-4 cm) in diameter.
The ribs number 7 to 9. The 8 or
9 radial spines are yellow, V 2 in.
(1 cm) long, central spine soli-
tary and longer than radials. The
orange-colored flowers mea-
sure 3V4-4in. (8-1 0cm) long
and have oblanceolate to
spathulate perianth segments.
This species is native to Chi-
huahua and Durango in Mexico.
Echinocereus triglochidiatus dif-
fers in having deep green stems,
fewer radial spines, which turn
grayish with age, and scarlet
flowers 2-2 3 A in. (5-7 cm) long.

A tryptamine derivative has
been reported from Echinocer-
eus triglochidiatus (3-hydroxy-4-
methoxyphenethylamine).

ERYTHRINA L (110)

Erythrina americana Mill.

Coral Tree

Leguminosae (Pea Family)

Tropical and warm zones of

34 both hemispheres

GALBULIMIMA F. M. Bailey (3)

Galbulimima belgraveana
(F. v. Muell.) Sprague
Agara

Himantandraceae

Northeast Australia,

35 Malaysia

HEIMIA Link et Otto (3)

Heimia salicifolia
(H.B.K.) Linket Otto
Sinicuichi

Lythraceae (Loosestrife Family)

Southern North America to
36 Argentina, West Indies

Tzompanquahuitl of the ancient
Aztecs may have been from the
many species in the genus Ery-
thrina, the seeds of which are
believed to have been employed
as a medicine and hallucinogen.
In Guatemala the beans are
employed in divination.

The beans of Erythrina flabel-
liformis constitute a Tarahumara
Indian medicinal plant of many
varied uses, which may have
been utilized as a hallucinogen.

Erythrina fiabelliformis is a
shrub or small tree with spiny
branches. The leaflets are 2 V 2 -
31/2 in. (3-6 cm) long, usually
broader than long. The densely
many-flowered racemes bear
red flowers VA-2'A in. (3-6 cm)
long. Sometimes attaining a
length of 1 ft (30cm), the pods,
shallowly constricted between
the seeds, contain from two to
many dark red beans. This spe-
cies is common in the hot, dry
regions of northern and central
Mexico and the American
Southwest.

Natives in Papua boil the bark
and leaves of this tree with a
species of Homaiomena to pre-
pare a tea that causes an intox-
ication leading to a deep slum-
ber, during which visions are
experienced.

This tree of northeastern
Australia, Papua, and Molucca
is unbuttressed, attaining a
height of 90ft (27 m). The highly
aromatic, gray brownish, scaly
bark measures Vi in. (1 cm) in
thickness. The elliptic, entire
leaves are a glossy, metallic
green above, brown beneath,
and are normally 4 Vi-6 in. (11-
1 5 cm) long and 2-2% in. (5-
7cm) wide. Lacking sepals and
petals but with many conspicu-
ous stamens, the flowers have a
pale yellow or brownish yellow
hue with a rusty brown calyx.
The ellipsoidal or globose fruit is
fleshy-fibrous, reddish, % in.
(2cm) in diameter.

Although 28 alkaloids have
been isolated from Gaibulimima
belgraveana, a psychoactive
principle has not yet been found
in the plant.

This genus has three very simi-
lar species, and all play impor-
tant roles in folk medicine. Sev-
eral vernacular names reported
from Brazil seem to indicate
knowledge of psychoactivity,
e.g., Abre-o-sol (“sun-opener”)
and Herva da Vida (“herb of
life”).

Sinicuichi (Heimia salicifolia)
is 2-6 ft (60cm-1 .8m) tall with
lanceolate leaves %-3'/2 in. (2-
9cm) long. The yellow flowers
are borne singly in the leaf axils;
the persistent bell-shaped calyx
develops long hornlike appen-
dages. The shrub grows abun-
dantly in moist places and along
streams in the highlands.

In the Mexican highlands, the
leaves of H. salicifolia are
slightly wilted, crushed in water,
and the preparation is then al-
lowed to ferment into an intoxi-
cating drink. Although it is be-
lieved that excessive use of
Sinicuichi may be physically
harmful, there are usually no
uncomfortable aftereffects. This
plant contains quinolizidine al-
kaloids (lythrine, cryogenine, ly-
foline, nesidine).

HELICHRYSUM Mill (500)

Helichrysum (L.) Moench.

Straw Flower

Compositae (Sunflower Family)
Europe, Africa, Asia

37 Australia

Two species are used by witch
doctors in Zululand “for inhaling
to induce trances.” It is pre-
sumed that the plants are
smoked for these effects.

Helichrysum foetidum is a tall,
erect, branching herb 1 0—1 2 in.
(25-30 cm) in height. It is slightly
woody near the base and is very
strongly scented. The lanceo-
late or lanceolate-ovate, basally
lobed, entire leaves, measuring
up to 3 V 2 in. (9 cm) long and
% in. (2 cm) wide, basally en-
clasp the stem; they are gray-
woolly beneath and glandular
above. The flowers occur in
loose, terminal, corymbose
clusters of several stalked
heads %- 1 1 /2 in. (2-4 cm) in dia-
meter, subtended by cream-co-
lored or golden yellow bracts.
These species of Helichrysum
are some of the plants known in
English as Everlasting.

Coumarine and diterpenes
have been reported from the
genus, but no constituents with
hallucinogenic properties have
been isolated.

HYOSCYAMUS L. (20)

Hyoscyamus albus L.

Yellow Henbane
Solanaceae
(Nightshade Family)

Mediterranean, Near East

Hyoscyamus niger L.

Black Henbane
Solanaceae
(Nightshade Family)

Europe, northern Africa,
4 1 southwestern and central
Asia

HELICOSTYLIS Trecul ( 12 )

HOMALOMENA Schott (142)

HYOSCYAMUS L. (10-20)

Helicostylis pedunculata

Benoist

Takim

Moraceae (Mulberry Family)

Central America, tropical
38 zones of South America

Homalomena lauterbachii Engl.
Ereriba

Araceae (Arum Family)

South America, tropical

39 zones of Asia

Takini is a sacred tree of the Gui-
anas. From the red “sap" of the
bark a mildly poisonous intoxi-
cant is prepared. Extracts from
the inner bark of two trees elicit
central nervous system depres-
sant effects similar to those pro-
duced by Cannabis sativa. The
two species responsible for this
hallucinogen are H. pedunculata
and H. tomentosa.

These two species of trees are
similar. Both are cylindrical or
very slightly buttressed forest
giants 75ft (23 m) tall with grayish
brown bark; the latex is pale yel-
low or cream-colored. The leath-
ery lanceolate-elliptic leaves at-
tain a length of 7 in. (18cm) and a
width of 3 in. (8cm). The fleshy,
pistillate flowers are borne in glo-
bose cauliflorous heads.

Very little is known about these
trees and they are rarely studied.
The hallucinogen could theoreti-
cally originate from either of the
related genera Brosimum or Pir-
atinera. Extracts from the inner
bark of both trees have been
pharmacologically studied; they
have a softening or dampening
effect, similar to Cannabis sativa.

In Papua New Guinea the na-
tives are said to eat the leaves of
a species of Homalomena with
the leaves and bark of Galbuli-
mima belgraveana to induce a
violent condition ending in slum-
ber, during which visions are ex-
perienced. The rhizomes have a
number of uses in folk medicine,
especially for the treatment of
skin problems. In Malaya an un-
specified part of a species was
an ingredient of an arrow
poison.

The species of Homalomena
are small or large herbs with
pleasantly aromatic rhizomes.
The leaves are oblong-
lanceolate or cordate-ovate,
borne on very short stems,
rarely exceeding 6 in. (15cm) in
length. The spathe usually per-
sists in fruit. The male and fe-
male portions of the spadix are
proximate. The small berries are
few or many-seeded.

The chemistry of this group of
plants has not yet disclosed any
hallucinogenic principle.

Although the herb has erect
stems, it often appears bushy. It
grows to approximately 8-12 in.
(40-50cm) high. The light green
stems and serrated leaves, as
well as the funnel-shaped flow-
ers and fruits, are all pileous.
The herb blooms from January
to July. The color of the flowers
is light yellow with deep violet on
the interior. The seeds have a
whitish or ocher color, occasion-
ally a gray color.

This henbane was the most
widely used magical herb and
medicinal plant. The hallucino-
gen was an important medium in
antiquity, used to promote a
trance and taken by oracles and
divinitory women. In the ancient
earth oracle of Gaia, it is the
“dragon’s herb.” The goddess of
the witches, Hecate, uses “crazy-
maker” in the Kolch oracle. Late
antiquity gives us “Zeus’s Beans”
in the oracle of Zeus-Ammon and
the Roman god Jupiter, lathe
Delphi oracles of Apollo, who is
the God of “prophetic insanity,” it
is known as “Apollo's Plant.”

The entire plant contains the
tropane alkaloids hyoscyamine
and scopolamine.

Henbane is a coarse annual or
biennial, viscid, hairy, strong-
smelling herb up to about 30 in.
(76cm) tall. The leaves are en-
tire or occasionally have a few
large teeth, ovate, 6-8 in. (15—
20 cm) long, the lower cauline
amplexicaul leaves being oblong
and smaller. The flowers, yellow
or greenish yellow veined with
purple, attain a length of about
1V4 in. (4cm) and are borne in
two ranks in a scorpioid cyme.
The fruit is a many-seeded cap-
sule enclosed in the persistent
calyx with its five triangular
points becoming rigid. The
seeds release a powerful and
distinctive odor when squeezed.

In antiquity and the Middle
Ages, Hyoscyamus niger was
employed in Europe as an im-
portant ingredient of the witches’
brews and ointments. It not only
reduced pain but also induced
oblivion.

The active principles in this
solanaceous genus are tropane
alkaloids, especially scopola-
mine. Scopolamine is a potent
hallucinogenic agent.

IPOMOEA L.

OCHROMA Benth

JUSTICIA L.

Ipomoea violacea L.

Morning Glory
Convolvulaceae
(Morning Glory Family)

Mexico to South America

chroma fuchsioides (Benth.) Miers
aguancfo
Solan aceae
(Nightshade Family)

Tropical and subtropical
42 zones of South America

Justicia pectoralis Jacq. var.
stenophylla Leonard
Mashihiri

Acanthaceae (Acanthus Family)
Tropical and warm zones of
44 Central and South America

Justicia pectoralis var. steno-
phylla differs from the wide-
spread J. pectoralis mainly in its
smaller stature and its very nar-
rowly lanceolate leaves and
shorter inflorescence. It is an
herb up to 1 ft (30cm) tall, with
erect or ascending stems,
sometimes rooting at the lower
nodes. The internodes are
short, usually less than % in.

(2 cm) long. The numerous
leaves measure normally %-
2'A in. (2-5 cm) long, %— 1 in. (1-
2 cm) wide. The dense inflores-
cence, covered with glandular
hairs, may reach a length of 4 in.
(10cm) but is usually much
shorter. The inconspicuous
flowers, about 'Ain. (5mm) long,
are white or violet, frequently
purple-spotted. The fruit, 'A in.

(5 mm) long, bears flat, reddish
brown seeds.

Chemical examination of Jus-
ticia has been inconclusive.
Preliminary indications that the
leaves of J. pectoralis var. ste-
nophylla contain tryptamines
(DMT) need confirmation. The
dried herb contains coumarin.

tec and Mazatec Indians call the
seeds Piule; the Zapotecs, Ba-
doh Negro. In pre-Conquest
days, the Aztecs knew them as
Tlililtzin and employed them in
the same way as Ololiuqui, the
seeds of another Morning Glory,
Turbina corymbosa.

Ipomoea violacea, known
also as I. rubrocaerulea, is an
annual vine with entire, ovate,
deeply cordate leaves 2V£-4in.
(6-1 0 cm) long, 3 A-3in. (2-8 cm)
wide. The inflorescence is three-
or four-flowered. The flowers
vary from white to red, purple,
blue or violet-blue, and measure
2-2 3 A in. (5-7 cm) wide at the
mouth of the trumpet-shaped,
corolla tube, 2-2 3 A in. (5-7 cm)
long. The ovoid fruit, about 'A in.
(1 cm) in length, bears elongate,
angular black seeds.

This variable species ranges
through western and southern
Mexico and Guatemala and in
the West Indies. It can be found
as well in tropical South Ameri-
ca. It is well known in horticul-
ture.

In Oaxaca, in southern Mexico,
the seeds of this vine are es-
teemed as one of the principal
hallucinogens for use in divina-
tion as well as magico-religious
and curing rituals. The Chinan-

-\mong the Kamsa Indians of
the Colombian Andes, I. fuch-
sioides is taken by shamans for
difficult diagnoses.

The intoxication is not plea-
sant, leaving aftereffects for
several days. The shrub is va-
lued also as a medicine for
treating difficulties with digestion
or bowel function, and to aid in
cases of difficult childbirth.

lochroma fuchsioides, a
shrub or small tree 10—1 5 ft (3-
4.5 m) tall, but sometimes larger,
occurs in the Colombian and
Ecuadorean Andes at about
7,000ft (2,200m) altitude. The
branches are reddish brown,
and the leaves, obovate-oblong,
measure 4-6 in. (10-15cm) in
length. The clustered tubular or
bell-shaped flowers are red, 1-
1 Vi in. (2.5-4cm) long. The red
fruit is an ovoid or pyriform berry
about % in. (2 cm) in diameter,
partially enclosed in a persistent
calyx.

The plant contains
withanolide.

Kaempferia galanga is used as
a hallucinogen in New Guinea.
Throughout the range of this
species, the highly aromatic rhi-
zome is valued as a spice to fla-
vor rice, and also in folk medi-
cine as an expectorant and
carminative as well as an aph-
rodisiac. A tea of the leaves is
employed for sore throat, swel-
lings, rheumatism, and eye in-
fections. In Malaysia, the plant
was added to the arrow poison
prepared from Antiaris toxicaria.

This short-stemmed herb has
flat-spreading, green, round
leaves measuring 3-6 in. (8-
15 cm) across. The white flow-
ers (with a purple spot on the
lip), which are fugacious, appear
singly in the center of the plant
and attain approximately 1 in.
(2.5cm) in breadth.

Beyond the high content of
essential oil in the rhizome, little
is known of the chemistry of the
plant. Psychoactive activity
might possibly be due to consti-
tuents of the essential oils.

This South African shrub has
orange-colored flowers and is
reported to be “hallucinogenic.”
In Africa it is called Dacha, Dag-
gha, or Wild Dagga, which
means “wild hemp.” The Hotten-
tots and the Bush people smoke
the buds and the leaves as a
narcotic. It is possible that thjs
plant is one of the narcotic
plants called Kanna (compare to
Sceletium tortuosum). The resi-
nous leaves, or the resin ex-
tracted from the leaves, are
smoked alone or mixed with to-
bacco. Chemical studies are
lacking.

In California the plant has
been grown and tested, reveal-
ing a bitter-tasting smoke and a
lightly psychoactive effect that is
reminiscent of both Cannabis
and Datura. In eastern South
Africa, the closely related Leo-
notis ovata is reportedly used for
the same purpose.

On the dry steppes of Turkestan,
the Tajik, Tatar, Turkoman, and
Uzbek tribesmen have used a
tea made from the toasted
leaves of the mint Lagochilus in-
ebrians as an intoxicant. The
leaves are frequently mixed with
stems, fruiting tops, and flowers,
and honey and sugar may occa-
sionally be added to lessen the
intense bitterness of the drink.

This plant has been well stu-
died from the pharmacological
point of view in Russia. It is re-
commended for its antihemor-
rhagic and hemostatic effects to
reduce permeability of blood
vessels and as an aid in blood
coagulation. It has also been
considered helpful in treating
certain allergies and skin pro-
blems. It has sedative
properties.

Phytochemical studies have
shown the presence of a crys-
talline compound called lagochi-
line — a diterpene of the grinde-
lian type.

This compound is not known to
be hallucinogenic.

KAEMPFERIA L.

Kaempferia galanga L.

Galanga

Zingiberaceae (Ginger Family)
Tropical zones of Africa,

45 southeastern Asia

LAGOCHILUS Bunge

Lagochilus inebrians Bunge
Turkestan Mint

Labiatae (Mint Family)
Central Asia

Leonotis leonurus (L.) R. Br
Lion’s Tail

Labiatae (Mint Family)
South Africa

Latua, 6-30 ft (2-9 m) tall, has
one or more main trunks. The
bark is reddish to grayish brown.
The spiny branches, rigid and
1 in. (2.5cm) long, arise in the
leaf axils. The narrow elliptic
leaves, dark to light green
above, paler beneath, are mar-
ginally entire or serrate and
measure 1%-1% in. (3!/z-
4'/2 cm) by %— 1 in. (1.5-4cm).
The flowers have a persistent,
bell-shaped, green to purplish
calyx and a larger, magenta to
red-violet, urceolate corolla 1%-
I'/zin. (3.5-4 cm) long, in.

(1 cm) wide at the mouth. The
fruit is a globose berry about
1 in. (2.5cm) in diameter, with
numerous kidney-shaped
seeds.

The leaves and fruit of L. pub-
iflora contain 0.18% hyoscya-
mine and atropine and 0.08%
scopolamine.^.

LATUA Phil.

Latua pubiflora (Griseb.) Baill.
Latue

Solanaceae
(Nightshade Family)

Chile

LEONOTIS (pers.) R. Br.

LEONURUSL. (5-6)

Leonurus sibiricus L.

Siberian ’Motherwort

Labiatae,(Mint Family)

Siberia to East Asia. Central

49 and South America

(naturalized)

LOBELIA L. (250)

Lobelia tupa L.

Tabaco del Diablo
Campanulaceae (Lobeliaceae)
(Harebell Family)

Tropical and warm zones

LOPHOPHORA Coult. (2)

Lophophora williamsii (Lem.) Coult.
Peyote

Cactaceae (Cactus Family)

Mexico, Texas

This herb grows erect and tall,
reaching over 6ft (2 m) often on
a single stem. It has maxiiliform
branches and finely serrated,
dark green leaves. The violet
flowers appear on the ends of
each stem and the inflorescence
can be long and attractive.

The Siberian Motherwort is
mentioned in the ancient Chi-
nese Shih Ching (the Book of
Songs, written approximately
1 000-500 b. c.), where it is
called t'uei. Later it was occa-
sionally praised as a medicinal
plant in old Chinese herbals.

The dried leaves, harvested
from the flowering plant, are
smoked as marijuana substitute
in Central and South America
(1—2 g per cigarette).

In the plant, 0.1 % of the flavo-
noid glycoside rutin has been
ascertained. Of particular inter-
est with regard to the psychoac-
tive properties was the discov-
ery of three new diterpenes:
leosibiricine, leosibirine, and the
isomers isoleosibiricine in
essential oil.

This beautiful, red- or red-pur-
ple-flowered, 6-9 ft (2-3 m) high
polymorphic Lobelia is well re-
cognized as toxic in the Andes
of southern Peru and northern
Chile, where it is called Tupa or
Tabaco del Diablo (“devil’s to-
bacco”). It flourishes in dry soil,
and its stems and roots have a
white latex that irritates the skin.

The luxuriant foliage clothes
nearly the whole length of the
plant with grayish green, elliptic,
often minutely hairy leaves 4-
9 in. (10-23 cm) long. VA-3'A in.
(3-8cm) wide. Carmine red or
purple, the flowers, 1 'A in. (4cm)
in length, are borne densely on a
stalk 14in. (36cm) long. The
corolla is decurved, sometimes
recurved with the lobes united at
the apex.

Tupa leaves contain the pi-
peridine alkaloid lobeline, a re-
spiratory stimulant, as well as
the diketo- and dihydroxy-deri-
vatives lobelamidine and nor-'o-
bedamidine. These constituents
are not known to possess hallu-
cinogenic properties. Neverthe-
less, the smoked leaves have a
psychoactive effect.

Two species of Lophophora are
recognized: they differ morpho-
logically and chemically.

Both species of Lophophora
are small, spineless gray-green
or bluish green top-shaped
plants. The succulent chloro-
phyll-bearing head or crown
measures up to 3% in. (8cm) in
diameter and is radially divided
in from 5 to 13 rounded ribs,
Each tubercle bears a small, flat
areole from the top of which
arises a tuft of hairs 3 A in. (2cm)
long. The whitish or pinkish
campanulate, usually solitary,
5 /a-1 in. (1 .5-2.5 cm) long flow-
ers are borne in the umbilicate
center of the crown.

The Indians cut off the crown
and dry it for ingestion as a hal-
lucinogen. This dry, disklike
head is known as the Mescal
Button or Peyote Button.

Lophophora williamsii is
usually blue-green with from 5 to
13 ribs and normally straight
furrows. It has up to 30 alka-
loids — primarily Mescaline — as
well as further psychoactive
phenylethylamines and isoqui-
nolines. L. diffusa has a gray-

green, sometimes even a rather
yellowish green crown with in-
definite ribs and sinuate furrows.
The flowers are usually much
larger than in L. williamsii. The
chemical constitution is much
simpler.

Both species of Lophophora
inhabit the driest and stoniest of
desert regions, usually on cal-
careous soil. When the crown is
removed, fhe plant will often
grow new crowns and thus
Peyotes with multiple heads are
commonly seen. The hallucino-
genic effects of Peyote are
strong, with kaleidoscopic, richly
colored visions. The other
senses — hearing, feeling,
taste— can also be affected.
There are reportedly two stages
in the intoxication. At first, a per-
iod of contentment and sensitiv-
ity occurs. The second phase
brings great calm and muscular
sluggishness, with a shift in at-
tention from external stimuli to
introspection and meditation

LYCOPERDON L. (50-1t>0)

Lycoperdon mixtecorum Heim
Lycoperdon marginatum Vitt.

Bovista

Lycoperdaceae
(Club Moss Family)

Temperate zones of Mexico

In northern Mexico, among the
Tarahumara of Chihuahua, a
species of Lycoperdon, known
as Kalamoto, is taken by sor-
cerers to enable them to ap-
proach people without being de-
tected and to make people sick.
In southern Mexico, the Mixtecs
of Oaxaca employ two species
to induce a condition of half-
sleep, during which it is said that
voices and echoes can be
heard.

Lycoperdon mixtecorum,
known only from Oaxaca, is
small, attaining a diameter of no
more than 1 Vi in . (3 cm). It is
subglobose, somewhat flat-
tened, abruptly constricted into
a peduncle scarcely Vs in.

(3 mm) long. The exterior sur-
face is densely cobbled-pustuli-
form and light tan in color. The
interior substance is straw co-
lored.

The spherical spores, brown-
ish tawny with a subtle tinge of
violet, measure up to lOp. This
terrestrial species grows in light
forest and in pastures.

Psychoactive constituents
have not yet been isolated.

MAMMILLARIA Haw.

(150-200)

MANDRAGORA L.

( 6 )

Mammillaria spp.
Pincushion Cactus

Mandragora officinarum L.
Mandrake

Solanaceae

Cactaceae (Cactus Family)
Southwestern North
53 America, Central America

(Nightshade Family)

Southern Europe, northern
54 Africa, western Asia to

Himalayas

Probably no plant has had a
more fantastic history than the
Mandrake. As a magical plant
and hallucinogen, its extraordin-
ary place in European folklore
can nowhere be equaled.

Known for its toxic and real and
presumed medicinal properties,
Mandrake commanded the fear
and respect of Europeans
throughout the Middle Ages and
earlier. Its folk uses and attri-
butes were inextricably bound
up with the Doctrine of Signa-
tures, because of its anthropo-
morphic root.

While there are six species of
Mandragora, it is M. officinarum
of Europe and the Near East
that has played the most impor-
tant role as a hallucinogen in
magic and witchcraft. It is a

stemless perennial herb up to
1 ft (30cm) high, with a thick,
usually forking root and large,
stalked, wrinkled, ovate leaves,
marginally entire or toothed and
measuring up to 11 in. (28 cm) in
length. The whitish green, pur-
plish, or bluish bell-shaped flow-
ers, 1’4 in. (3cm) in length, are
borne in clusters among the
tufted leaves. The globose or
ovoid, succulent yellow berry
has a delightful fragrance.

The total content of tropane
alkaloids in the root is 0.4%.
The principal alkaloids are
hyoscyamine and scopolamine,
but atropine, cuscohygrine, or
mandragorine is also present.

Among the most important
“false Peyotes” of the Tarahu-
mara Indians are several spe-
cies of Mammillaria, all of them
round and stout-spined plants.

/V-methyl-3,4-dimethoxy-phe-
nylethylamine has been isolated
from M. heyderii, a species clo-
sely related to M. craigii. Horde-
nine is present in many species.

Mammillaria craigii is globose
but apically somewhat flattened
with conical, angled tubercles
about V 2 in. (1 cm) long and axils
and areoles at first woolly; the
central spines are about '4 in.

(5 mm) long. The rose-colored
flower attains a length of % in.

(1 ,5 cm), M. grahamii may be
globose or cylindric, 2% in.
(6cm) in diameter with small tu-
bercles and naked axils; the
central spines are 3 A in. (2 cm) or
less in length. The flowers,
which attain a length of 1 in,
(2.5cm), have violet or purplish
segments, sometimes with
white margins.

MAQUIRA Aubl. (2)

Maquira sclerophylla (Ducke) C. C.
Berg

Rape dos Indios
Moraceae (Mulberry Family)

Tropical zones of South

55 America

In the Pariana region of the Bra-
zilian Amazon, the Indians for-
merly prepared a potent halluci-
nogenic snuff that, although no
longer prepared and used, is
known as Rape dos Indios (“In-
dian snuff”). It is believed to
have been made from the fruit of
an enormous forest tree, Ma-
quira sclerophylla (known also
as Olmedioperebea sclero-
phylla).

Maquira sclerophylla attains a
height of 75-1 00 ft (23-30 m).
The latex is white. Very thick and
heavy, the ovate or oblong-
ovate, marginally inrolled leaves
are 8-12 in. (20-30 cm) long, 3-
QVz in. (8-1 6 cm) wide. The male
flowering heads are globose, up
to about V 2 in. (1 cm) in dia-
meter; the female inflores-
cences are borne in the leaf ax-
ils and have one or rarely two
flowers. The drupe or fruit, cin-
namon-colored and fragrant, is
globose, %- 1 in. (2-2. 5cm) in
diameter. The tree contains-
cardiac glycosides.

MIMOSA L.

(500)

MITRAGYNA Korth.

(20-30)

Mimosa hostilis (Mart.) Benth. (Mi-
mosa tenuiflora)

Jurema Tree

Mitragyna speciosa Korthals
Kratom

Rubiaceae (Madder Family)

Southeast Asia (Thailand,
57 northern Malay Peninsula to
Borneo, New Guinea)

In the dry caatingas of eastern
Brazil, this busy, sparsely spiny
treelet flourishes abundantly.
The spines are basally swollen,
'/sin. (3mm) long. Its finely pin-
nate leaves are 114-1% in. (3-
5 cm) long. The flowers, which
occur in loosely cylindrical
spikes, are white and fragrant.
The legume or pod, about 1-
114 in. (2.5-3 cm) long, breaks
into 4-6 sections. An alkaloid
was isolated from the root of this
treelet and called nigerine. It
was later shown to be identical
with the hallucinogenic
N,N-dimethyltryptamine.

Several species of Mimosa
are called Jurema in eastern
Brazil. M. hostilis is often known
as Jurema Preta (“black jure-
ma”). It is identical to the Mexi-
can Tepescohuite (M. tenui-
flora). The related M. verrucosa,
from the bark of which a stupe-
facient is said to be derived, is
frequently called Jurema Branca
(“white jurema”).

The tropical tree or shrub grows
in marshy areas. Often it grows
only to 6-9 ft (3-4 m) high, oc-
casionally to 36-42 ft (12-1 6 m).
It has an erect stem with forked
branches that grow obliquely
upward. The green oval leaves
(8-1 2 cm) are very broad and
become narrower toward the tip,
which is pointed. The flowers
are deep yellow and hang in
globular clusters. The seeds are
winged.

The dried leaves are smoked,
chewed, or worked into an ex-
tract called Kratom or Mambog.

The psychoactive properties
of kratom are paradoxical. Per-
sonal research, the descriptions
of it in the literature, as well as
the pharmacological character-
istics of the material have re-
vealed kratom to be simulta-
neously stimulating like cocaine
and soothing like morphine. The
stimulating effects begin within 5
to 10 minutes of chewing the
fresh leaves.

As early as the 1 9 th century
the use of Kratom as an opium
substitute and a curative for
opium addiction was reported.
There are numerous indole al-
kaloids present in the plant. The
primary constituent is mitragy-
nine, which is apparently easily
tolerated and shows barely any
toxicity even in high doses.

Mucuna pruriens has not been
reported as a hallucinogen, but
the plant has been chemically
shown to be rich in psychoactive
constituents (DMT, 5-MeO-DMT).

This stout, scandent herb,
with acute angulate stems, has
three-foliolate leaves. The leaf-
lets, oblong or ovate, are den-
sely hairy on both surfaces. The
dark purple or bluish flowers, 3 A-
VA in. (2-3 cm) long, are borne
in short hanging racemes. The
pods, with long, stiff, stinging
hairs, measure about iy2-3’/2 in.
(4-9 cm) long, 'A in. (1 cm) thick.

The total indole alkyiamine
content was studied from the
point of view of its hallucino-
genic activity. It was found that
marked behavioral changes oc-
curred that could be equated
with hallucinogenic activity. It is
possible that Indian peoples
may have discovered and uti-
lized some of these psychoac-
tive properties of M. pruriens.
The powdered seeds are con-
sidered aphrodisiac in India.

The seeds contain DMT and are
used as an Ayahuasca analog
today.

Nutmeg and mace can, in large
doses, induce an intoxication
characterized by space and time
distortion, a feeling of detach-
ment from reality, and visual and
auditory hallucinations. Fre-
quently with unpleasant effects
such as severe headache, dizzi-
ness, nausea, tachycardia, nut-
meg intoxication is variable.

Myristica fragrans is a hand-
some tree, unknown in a truly
wild state, but widely cultivated
for nutmeg, from the seed, and
for mace, from the red aril sur-
rounding the seed. The two
spices have different tastes
because of differing concentra-
tions of components of their
essential oils. The aromatic
fraction of oil of nutmeg is made
up of nine components belong-
ing to the groups terpenes and
aromatic ethers. The major
component — myristicine — is a
terpene, but its biological activity
is believed to be that of an
irritant.

The psychotropic activity is
thought to be due primarily to
aromatic ethers (myristicine and
others).

MUCUNA Adans

Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC.
Cowhage

(120) MYRISTICA Gronov. (120)

Myristica fragrans Houtt.

Nutmeg

Leguminosae (Pea Family)

Tropical and warm zones of
58 both hemispheres

Myristicaceae (Nutmeg Family)

Tropical and warm zones of
59 Europe, Africa, Asia

NYMPHAEAL. (50) ONCIDIUMSw. (350)

Nymphaea ampla (Salisb.) DC. Oncidium cebolleta (Jacq.) Sw.

Water Lily Hikuri Orchid

Nymphaeaceae

(Water Lily Family) Orchidaceae (Orchid Family)

Temperate and warm zones Central America, South

60 of both hemispheres 61 America, Florida

There is evidence that Nym- Oncidium cebolleta is an epi-
phaea may have been employed phytic orchid that grows on
as a hallucinogen in both the Old steep, stone cliffs and trees in
and New Worlds. The isolation the Tarahumara Indian country
of the psychoactive apomor- of Mexico. It is employed as a
phine has offered chemical sup- temporary surrogate of Peyote
port to this speculation. Nucifer- or Hikuri (Lophophora william-
ine and nornuciferine are also sii). Little is known, however, of
isolated from N. ampla. its use.

Nymphaea ampla has thickish The tropical orchid is widely
dentate leaves, purple beneath, distributed in the New World,
measuring 5V^— 1 1 in. (14- The pseudo-bulbs appear as lit-

28cm) across. The beautiful, tie more than a swelling at the
showy white flowers, with 30- base of the fleshy, erect, round
1 90 yellow stamens, become 3- leaves, grayish green, often
5 'A in. (7-1 3 cm) across at ma- spotted with purple. The flower-

turity. The Egyptian native ing spike, often arching, has a

N. caerulea’s oval, peltate green stalk with purplish or pur-

leaves, irregularly dentate, pie-brown spots. The flowers

measure 5-6 in. (12—15 cm) in have brownish yellow sepals
diameter and are green-purple and petals spotted with dark
blotched beneath. The light blue brown blotches. The three-lobed
flowers, dull white in the center, lip, 3 A in. (2cm) long by 1 Vs in.
open three days in the mid- (3 cm) across the mid-lobe, is

morning; they measure 3-6 in. bright yellow with reddish brown
(7.5-15 cm) across; the petals, marks,
acute-lanceolate, number 1 4 to An alkaloid has been reported

20, while the stamens number from Oncidium cebolleta.

50 or more.

PANAEOLUS (Fr.) (20-60

Quelet

Panaeolus cyanescens Berk, et Br,
Blue Meanies

Coprinaceae

Warm zones of both
63 hemispheres

A plant of many uses among the
Indians, this tall, treelike colum-
nar cactus, arising from a 6ft
(1.8 m) trunk, attains a height of
35ft (10.5m), The short spines
are characteristically gray with
black tips. The 2— 3in. (5-8 cm)
flowers are purplish in the out-
ermost petals, white in the inner
parts. The fruit, globose and
measuring 2'/2— 3 in. (6-8 cm) in
diameter, is densely covered
with yellow wool and long yellow
bristles.

The Tarahumara, who know
the plant as Cawe and Wicho-
waka, take a drink made from
the juice of the young branches
as a narcotic. It causes dizzi-
ness and visual hallucinations.
The term Wichowaka also
means “insanity” in the Tarahu-
mara language. There are a
numberof purely medicinal uses
of this cactus. Recent studies
have isolated 4-hydroxy-
3-methoxyphenylethylamine
and 4-tetrahydroisoquinoline
alkaloids from this plant.

Panaeolus cyanescens is a
small, fleshy or nearly membra-
naceous, campanulate mush-
room. The slender stipe is fra-
gile and the lamellae are
variegated, with metuloid co-
lored, pointed cystidia on the
sides. The spores are black. The
fruiting bodies take on bluish
flecks with age or after bruising.

The islanders of Bali pick
Panaeolus cyanescens from
cow and water buffalo dung and
ingest them for celebrations and
artistic inspiration. The mush-
room is also sold as a hallucino-
gen to strangers as they pass
through on their travels,

Although this mushroom is
primarily tropical, the discovery
that it contains psilocybine was
made with material collected in a
garden in France, Up to 1 .2% of
psilocine and 0.6% of psilocy-
bine has been found in this
species.

PACHYCEREUS (A. Berger)
Britt, et Rose

Pachycereus pecten-aboriginum
(Engelm.) Britt, et Rose
Cawe

Cactaceae (Cactus Family)
Mexico

PANAEOLUS (Fr.) (20-60)

Quelet

Panaeolus sphinctrinus (Fr.) Quelet
Hoop-petticoat

Coprinaceae

Cosmopolitan

One of the sacred hallucinogenic The flesh is thin, in color simi-

mushrooms employed in divina- lar to the surface, with scarcely
tion and other magic ceremonies any odor. Several investigators
in northeastern Oaxaca, Mexico, have at times argued that
among the Mazatec and Chi- P sphinctrinus is not among the
nantec Indians isthis memberof hallucinogenic mushrooms
the small genus Panaeolus. It is used by shamans in Indian
known in Mazatec as T-ha-na- communities of Oaxaca, but this

sa, She-to, and To-shka. She-to view is contradicted by ample
means “pasture mushroom” and evidence. Its use by Oaxacan
To-shka, “intoxicating mush- Indians along with so many

room.” While not so important as other mushroom species de-
the several species of Psilocybe monstrates the tendency among
and Stropharia, P. sphinctrinus shamans to use a surprisingly
is on occasion used by certain wide range of different mush-
shamans. This and other spe- rooms, depending on season,
cies of Panaeolus have been re- weather variation, and specific
ported to contain the hallucino- usage. Investigators now be-
genic alkaloid psilocybine. lieve that there may be more

Growing on cow dung in for- species and genera of mush-

ests, open fields, and along rooms in use among Mexican

roads, P. sphinctrinus is a deli- Indian populations than those

cate yellowish brown mushroom now known,
upto4in. (10cm) in height. It In European Panaeolus

has an ovoid-campanulate, ob- sphinctrinus no psilocybine has
tusely pointed, tan-gray cap up been detected. Neither have
to 1 'A in. (3 cm) in diameter. The psychoactive effects been de-
stipe is dark grayish. The dark termined in human pharmacolo-

brownish black gills bear black, gical experiments. It is possible

lemon-shaped spores that vary that chemically different types
in size; they can measure 12 to exist,

1 5 by 7.5 to 8.3 pi.

PANAEOLUS (Fr) (20-60)

Quelet

Panaeoius subbalteatus Berk, et
Broome

Dark-rimmed Mottlegill
Coprinaceae

Eurasia, North and Central

65 America

PANCRATIUM L. (15)

Pancratium trianthum Herbert
Kwashi

Amaryllidaceae
(Amaryllis Family)

Tropical and warm zones of
66 Africa and Asia

PANDANUS L. fil. (600)

Pandanus sp.

Screw Pine
Pandanaceae
(Screwpine Family)

Tropical and warm zones of
67 Europe, Africa, Asia

PEGANUM L. (6) j

Peganum harmala L,

Syrian Rue
Zygophyllaceae
(Caltrop Family)

Western Asia to northern In-
68 dia; Mongolia, Manchuria

The Dark-rimmed Mottlegill is
widely distributed throughout
Europe. It grows in dung-ferti-
lized, grassy earth, in particular
in horse pastures and in con-
junction with horse manure. The
cap is%-2% in. (2-6 cm) wide
and somewhat smooth. This
mushroom spreads rapidly. It is
at first damp brown and grows
drier toward the middle, so that
the edge often appears markedly
darker. The red-brown lamellae
are curved and eventually be-
come black due to the spores.

There is no information
passed on about a traditional
use of this mushroom. It is pos-
sible that it was an ingredient in
the mead or beer of the Ger-
mans. Nevertheless, this mush-
room has a symbiotic relation-
ship with the horse, the sacred
animal of the German god of
ecstasy, Wodan.

Thef ruiting body contains 0.7 %
psilocybine as well as 0.46 %
baeocystine, a fair amount of ser-
otonine and also 5-hydroxy-tryp-
tophane, but no psilocine. Activity
is experienced with 1 .5 g dried
mushroom; 2.7 g are visionary.

Many of the 1 5 species of this
plant are potent cardiac poi-
sons; others are emetics; one is
said to cause death by paralysis
of the central nervous system.

P. trianthum is reputedly one of
the most toxic species.

Little is known of the use of
Pancratium trianthum. In Dobe,
Botswana, the Bushmen report-
edly value the plant as a halluci-
nogen, rubbing the sliced bulb
over cuts made in the scalp, In
tropical west Africa, P. trianthum
seems to be religiously important.

The species of Pancratium
have tunicated bulbs and linear
leaves, mostly appearing with
the flowers. The white or green-
ish white flowers, borne in an
umbel terminating in an erect,
solid, stout scape, have a
funnel-shaped perianth with a
long tube and narrow segments.
The stamens, located at the
throat of the perianth, are joined
together at the base into a kind
of cup. The seeds are angled
and black.

In the bulb of P. trianthum the
alkaloids lycorine and hordenine
have been detected,

The Syrian Rue is an herb native
to desert areas. It is a bushy
shrub attaining a height of 3ft
(1 m). The leaves are cut into
narrowly linear segments, and
the small white flowers occur in
the axils of branches. The glo-
bose, deeply lobed fruit contains
many flat, angled seeds of a
brown color, bitter taste, and
narcotic odor. The plant pos-
sesses psychoactive principles:
|3-carboline alkaloids— harmine,
harmaline, tetrahydroharmine —
and related bases known to oc-
cur in at least eight families of
higher plants. These constitu-
ents are found in Peganum har-
mala in the seeds.

The high esteem that P. har-
mala enjoys in folk medicine
wherever the plant occurs may
indicate a former semisacred
use as a hallucinogen in native
religion and magic. It has
recently been postulated that
P. harmala may have been the
source of Soma or Huoma of the
ancient peoples of Persia and
India.

Natives of New Guinea employ
the fruit of a species of Panda-
nustor hallucinogenic purposes,
but little is known of this use.

Dimethyltryptamine has been
isolated and identified in Panda-
nus nuts. Pandanus is a very
large genus of the Old World
tropics. It is dioecious, treelike,
sometimes climbing, with pro-
minent flying-buttress- or stiltlike
roots. The leaves of some spe-
cies attain a length of 15 ft
(4.5 m) and are used for matting:
they are commonly long, stiff,
swordlike, armed with prickles,
hooked forward and backward.
The naked flowers occur in large
heads enclosed in spathes. The
aggregate fruit or syncarpium, is
a large, heavy, hard, composite
ball-like, orconelike mass com-
prising the union of the angled,
easily detachable carpels. Most
species of Pandanus occur
along the seacoast or in salt
marshes. The fruits of some
species are used as food in
Southeast Asia.

PELECYPHORA Ehrenb. (2)

PERNETTYA (20)

Gaud.-Beaup.

PETUNIA Juss. (40)

PEUCEDANUM L. (125)

Pelecyphora aselliformis Ehrenb.

Pernettya furens (Hook, ex DC.)

Petunia violacea Lindl.

Peucedanum japonicum Thunb.

Peyotillo

Klotzch
Hierba Loca

Shanin

Solanaceae

Fang-K'uei

Cactaceae (Cactus Family)

Ericaceae (Heath Family)

(Nightshade Family)

Umbelliferae (Parsley Family)

Mexico

Mexico to the Andes; Gala-

Warm zones of North

Temperate zones of Europe,

70 pagos and Falkland Islands;
New Zealand

7 1 America, South America

72 southern Africa, Asia

•v f

,71/

i?\

There are suspicions that this
round cactus may be valued in
Mexico as a “false Peyote.” It is
locally known as Peyote and
Peyotillo.

A beautiful cactus, P. aselli-
formis is a solitary, gray-green,
tufted, cylindric-conical plant 1-
21/2 in. (2.5-6.5cm), although
rarely up to 4 in. (10cm) in dia-
meter. The laterally flattened tu-
bercles are spiraled, not ar-
ranged on ribs, and bear very
small, scalelike, pectinate
spines. The apical bell-shaped
flowers measure up to 1 14 in.

(3 cm) in width; the outer seg-
ments are white, the inner red-
violet.

Recent investigations have
indicated the presence of alka-
loids, mescaline among others.
When consumed, the cactus
has a similar effect to Peyote.

Numerous reports indicate that
Pernettya is intoxicating. The
fruit of P. furens, the Huedhued
or Hierba Loca of Chile, causes
mental confusion, madness,
and even permanent insanity.
The effects of the intoxication
are said to be similar to those
caused by Datura. Taglli, or
P parvifolia, has toxic fruit cap-
able, when ingested, of inducing
hallucinations as well as other
psychic and motor alterations.

It has been suggested that
Pernettya was employed by
aboriginal peoples as a magico-
religious hallucinogen.

These two species of Pernet-
tya are small, sprawling to sub-
erect shrubs with densely leafy
branches. The flowers are white
to rose-tinted. The berrylike fruit
is white to purple.

A recent report from highland
Ecuador has indicated that a
species of Petunia is valued as a
hallucinogen. It is called Shanin
in Ecuador. Which group of In-
dians employs it, what species,
and how it is prepared for use
are not known. It is said to in-
duce a feeling of levitation or of
soaring through the air, a typical
characteristic of many kinds of
hallucinogenic intoxications.

Most of the cultivated types of
Petunia are hybrids derived from
the purple-flowered Petunia vio-
tacea and the white Petunia ax-
illaris. These species are native
to southern South America.

Phytochemical studies of the
horticulturally important genus
Petunia are lacking, but as a so-
lanaceous group allied to Nicoti-
ana — the tobaccos— it may well
contain biologically active
principles.

Peucedanum japonicum is a
stout perennial, blue-green herb
with thick roots and short rhi-
zomes. The solid, fibrous stems
attain a length of 20-40in. (0.5-
1 m). The thick leaves are 8-
24in. (20-61 cm) long, twice or
thrice ternate with obovate-
cuneate leaflets 1 14-214 in. (3-
6 cm) long. The flowers are
borne in umbellate clusters. The
1 0 to 20 rays are %-1 14 in. (2-
3cm) long. The ellipsoid fruit is
minutely hairy, 11/2-2 in. (3.5-
5cm) long. This plant is com-
mon on sandy places near sea-
shores.

The root of Fang-K'uei is em-
ployed medicinally in China as
an eliminative, diuretic, tussic,
and sedative. Although thought
to be rather deleterious, it may,
with prolonged use, have tonic
effects.

Alkaloidal constituents have
been reported from Peuceda-
num. Coumarin and furocou-
marin are widespread in the
genus and occur in P japoni-
cum.

PHRAGMITES Adans. (1)

Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex
Steud.

Common Reed
Gramineae (Grass Family)
Cosmopolitan

PSILOCYBE (Fr.) Quelet (180)

Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Sing.

San Isidro

Strophariaceae

Nearly cosmopolitan in the
76 tropics

PHALARIS L (10)

Phalaris arundinacea L.
Red Canary Grass

Graminaea (Grass Family)
Cosmopolitan

PHYTOLACCA L. (36)

Phytolacca acinosa Roxb.
Pokeberry

This perennial grass has grayish
green stalks that grow to 6 ft (2 m)
and can be split lengthwise. The
long, broad leaves have rough
edges. The panicle can take on a
light green or red-violet colora-
tion. The calyx holds one flower.

The Red Canary Grass was
known already in antiquity. Thus
far, no traditional use of Phalaris
arundinacea as a psychoactive
substance is known.

The psychoactive constitu-
ents of Phalaris were first no-
ticed by a phytochemical study
on grasses done for agricultural
purposes. It is possible that in
the past few years “cellar sha-
mans" might have been experi-
menting with a possible psy-
choactive use for the grass in
Ayahuasca analogs and DMT
extracts.

The entire grass contains in-
dole alkaloids, which are highly
variable according to their spe-
cies, tribe, position, and harvest.
In most, DMT, MMT, and 5-
MeO-DMT are to be found. The
grass can also contain high
concentrations of gramine, an
extremely toxic alkaloid.

Phytolaccaceae

Tropical and warm zones of

75 both hemispheres

The Common Reed, the largest
grass in Central Europe, often
grows in harbors. It has a thick,
many-branched rhizome. The
stalks are 3-9 ft (1-3 m) high; the
leaves have rough edges and
grow up to 1 6-20 in. (40-50 cm)
long and 14—% in. (1-2 cm) wide.
The very long panicle, 6-1 6 in,
(15-40 cm) long, has many dark
purple flowers. It flowers from
July to September. Seeds mature
in winter, at which pointthe leaves
drop and the panicle turns white,

The Common Reed had many
uses in ancient Egypt, particu-
larly as fibrous material, Tradi-
tional use for psychoactive pur-
poses has been documented,
only as a fermented ingredient in
a beerlike drink.

The rootstalk contains DMT,
5-MeO-DMT, bufotenine, and
gramine. Reports concerning
psychoactive properties are pri-
marily from experiences with an
Ayahuasca analog made from an
extract of the roots, lemon juice,
and the seeds of Peganum har-
mala. Unpleasant side effects
such as nausea, vomiting, and
diarrhea have been described.

This mushroom, known in Oax-
aca as Hongo de San Isidro, is
an important hallucinogen,
although it should be noted that
not all shamans will use it. The
Mazatec name is Di-shi-tjo-le-
rra-ja (“divine mushroom of
manure”).

The mushroom may attain a
height of 1%— 3in. (4-8 cm), very
rarely up to 5% in. (1 5 cm). The
cap, usually %-2 in. (2-5 cm) in
diameter (rarely larger), is conic-
campanulate, at first especially
papillose, then becoming con-
vex to plane. It is golden yellow,
pale tan to whitish near the mar-
gin; in age or upon injury, it may
become cyanaceous. The stipe
is hollow, usually thickened at
the base, white but yellowing or
becoming ashy red, and
strongly lined. The gills vary
from whitish to deep gray-violet
or purple-brown. The ellipsoid
spores are purple-brown.

The active principle in Psilo-
cybe cubensis is psilocybine.

Phytolacca acinosa is a glab-
rous perennial with robust,
branching green stems up to 3ft
(91 cm) in length. The elliptic
leaves average about 4%in.

(12 cm) long. The white flowers,
about % in. (1 cm) in diameter,
are borne on densely flowered
racemes 4in. (10cm) in length.
The purple-black, berrylike fruit
bears small black kidney-
shaped seeds Vs in. (3 mm) long.

A well-known Phytolacca in
China, Shang-lu exists in two
forms: one with white flowers
and a white root and one with
red flowers and a purplish root.
The latter type is considered to
be highly toxic, although the for-
mer is cultivated as a food. The
flowers— Ch’ang-hau’— are es-
teemed for treating apoplexy.
The root is so poisonous that it is
normally used only externally,

Phytolacca acinosa is high in
saponines and the sap of the
fresh leaves has been reported
to have antiviral properties.

PSILOCYBE (Fr.) Queiet (180)

°silocybe cyanescens Wakefield
emend. Kriegelsteiner
Wavy Cap
Strophariaceae

North America.

77 Central Europe

Psilocybe cyanescens is rela-
tively easy to identify by its wavy
brown cap %- 1 % in. (2-4cm)
wide. It doesn’t live on dung, but
on decaying plants, coniferous
mulch, and humus-rich earth. In
older mushroom guides it is of-
ten called Hyphaloma cyanes-
cens. It is very closely related to
the species Psilocybe azures-
cens and Psilocybe bohemica,
both also very powerful
hallucinogens.

A traditional or shamanic use
of this highly potent Psilocybe
has not yet been documented.

Today, Psilocybe cyanescens
is used in Central Europe and
North America in neo-pagan
rituals. In addition, cultivated
mushrooms that have a very
high concentration of psilocy-
bine are eaten. Visionary doses
are 1 g of the dried mushroom,
which contains approximately
1 % tryptamine (psilocybine,
psilocine, and baeocystine).

PSILOCYBE (Fr.) Queiet (180)

Psilocybe mexicana Heim
Teonanacatl

PSILOCYBE (Fr.) Queiet (180)

Psilocybe semilanceata (Fr.) Queiet
■ Liberty Cap

PSYCHOTRIAL. (1200-1400)

Psychotria viridis Rui'z et Pavon
Chacruna

Strophariaceae

Nearly cosmopolitan

Strophariaceae

Cosmopolitan,

79 except Mexico

Rubiaceae (Madder Family)

Amazonia— from Colombia
80 t0 Bolivia and eastern Brazil

Many species of Psilocybe are
employed in southern Mexico as
sacred mushrooms, P mexica-
na being one of the most widely
used.

P. mexicana grows at altitudes
of 4, 500-5, 500 ft (1,375-
1,675m), especially in lime-
stone regions, isolated or very
sparsely in moss along trails, in
wet meadows and fields, and in
oak and pine forests. One of the
smallest of the hallucinogenic
species, it attains a height of 1-
(rarely) 4 in. (2. 5-1 Ocm). The
conic campanulate or frequently
hemispherical cap, 'A-Vk in.
(1-3 cm) in diameter, is a weak
straw color or greenish straw
color (sometimes even brownish
red) when living, drying to a
greenish tan or deep yellow; it
has brown striations, and the
terminal nipple is often reddish.
The flesh of the cap turns bluish
on bruising, The hollow stipe is
yellow to yellowish pink, red-
brown near the base. The
spores are deep sepia to dark
purple-brown.

Psilocybe semilanceata is the
most common and widespread
mushroom in the Psilocybe
genus, The Liberty Cap prefers
to grow in fields with old manure
piles and on grassy, fertile mea-
dows. Its cap,%-1 in. (1-2.5cm)
wide, is conical and often
peaked. It usually feels damp and
slimy. The “head skin’’ is easy to
peel off. The small iamels are ol-
ive to red-brown; the spores are
dark brown or purple-brown.

P. semilanceata contains high
concentrations of psilocybine
(0.97% up to 1 .34%), some psi-
locine, and less baeocystine
(0.33%). This species is one of
the most potent Psilocybe
mushrooms.

Toward the end of the Middle
Ages in Spain, P. semilanceata
was probably used as a halluci-
nogen by women who were ac-
cused of being witches. Alleg-
edly the nomads of the Alps
named P. semilanceata the
“dream mushroom” and tradi-
tionally used it as a psycho-
active substance. Today this
mushroom is ritually taken in
certain circles.

The evergreen shrub can grow
into a small tree with a woody
trunk, but usually remains at a
height of 6-9 ft (2-3 m). Its
whorled leaves are long and
narrow with a color ranging from
light green to dark green and a
shiny top side. The flowers have
greenish white petals on long
stalks. The red fruit js a berry
that contains numerous small
long oval seeds, about 1 in.
(4mm) long.

The leaves must be gathered
in the morning. They are used
either fresh or dried in the pro-
duction of Ayahuasca. Today
they are also used as an Aya-
huasca analog.

The leaves contain 0.1-
0.61 % DMT, as well as traces of
similar alkaloids (MMT, MTHC);
most of the leaves contain
around 0.3% DMT.

RHYNCHOSIA Lour,

(300)

SALVIA L. (700)

SCELETIUM

( 1000 )

SCIRPUS L.

(300)

Rhynchosia phaseoloides DC.

Piule

Leguminosae (Pea Family)

Tropical and warm zones of
81 both hemispheres

Salvia divinorum Epl. et
Jativa-M.

Diviner’s Sage
Labiatae (Mint Family)
Oaxaca, Mexico

Sceletium tortuosum L.
Kougued

Scirpus atrovirens Wilid.
Bakana

Aizoaceae (Carpetweed Family)
South Africa

Cyperaceae (Sedge Family)
Cosmopolitan

The beautiful red and black
beans of several species of
Rhynchosia may have been em-
ployed in ancient Mexico as a
hallucinogenic. Paintings of
these seeds on frescoes dated
a. d. 300-400 at Tepantitla sug-
gest former use as a sacred
plant.

These two species are simi-
lar— scandent vines with flowers
in long racemes. The flowers of
R. longeracemosa are yellow;
the seeds are mottled light and
dark brown. R. pyramidalis has
greenish flowers and handsome
half-red, half-black seeds.

Chemical studies of Rhynch-
osia are still preliminary and in-
decisive. An alkaloid with cur-
are-like activity has been
reported from one species.

Early pharmacological experi-
ments with an extract of R. pha-
seoloides produced a kind of
semi-narcosis in frogs.

In Oaxaca, Mexico, the Mazatec
Indians cultivate Salvia divinor-
um for the leaves, which are
crushed on a metate, diluted in
water, and drunk or chewed
fresh for their hallucinogenic
properties in divinatory rituals.
The plant, known as Hierba de
la Pastora (“herb of the shep-
herdess”) or Hierba de la Virgen
(“herb of the Virgin”), is culti-
vated in plots hidden away in
forests far from homes and
roads.

Salvia divinorum is a peren-
nial herb 3ft (1 m) tall or more,
with ovate leaves up to 6 in,

(1 5 cm) and finely dentate along
the margin. The bluish flowers,
borne in panicles up to 1 6 in,

(41 cm) in length, are approxi-
mately % in, (15mm) long.

It has been suggested that the
narcotic Pipiltzintzintli of the an-
cient Aztecs was Salvia divinor-
um, but at present the plant
seems to be used only by the
Mazatecs. The plant contains the
potent compound salvinorin A.

Over two centuries ago, Dutch
explorers reported that the Hot-
tentots of South Africa chewed
the root of a plant known as
Kanna or Channa as a vision-in-
ducing hallucinogen. This com-
mon name is today applied to
several species of Sceletium
that have alkaloids— mesembr-
ine and mesembrenine — with
sedative, cocainelike activities
capable of inducing torpor.

Sceletium expansum is a
shrub up to 12 in. (30cm) tall with
fleshy, smooth stems and pros-
trate, spreading branches. The
lanceolate-oblong entire,
smooth, unequal leaves, mea-
suring VA in. (4cm) long, Vs in.

(1 cm) wide, are of a fresh green
color and very glossy. Borne on
solitary branches in groups of
one to five, the white or dull yel-
low flowers are 1 V2-2in. (4-
5 cm) across. The fruit is angular.

Both S. expansum and S. tor-
tuosum were formerly Mesem-
bryanthemum.

One of the most powerful herbs
of the Tarahumara of Mexico is
apparently a species of Scirpus.
Tarahumara Indians fear to cul-
tivate Bakana lest they become
insane. Some medicine men
carry Bakana to relieve pain.

The tuberous underground part
is believed to cure insanity, and
the whole plant is a protector of
those suffering from mental ills.
The intoxication that it induces
enables Indians to travel far and
wide, talk with dead ancestors,
and see brilliantly colored
visions.

Alkaloids have been reported i
from Scirpus as well as from the
related genus Cyperus.

The species of Scirpus may
be annuals or perennials and
are usually grasslike herbs with
few- to many-flowered spikelets
that are solitary or in terminal
clusters. The fruit is a three-
angled akene with or without a
beak. They grow in many habi-
tats but seem to prefer wet soil
or bogs.

SCOPOLIA (3-5) SIDAL. (200)

Jaoq. Corr. Link

Scopolia carniolica Jacques Sida acuta Burm.

Scopolia Axocatzfn

Solanaceae

(Nightshade Family) Malvaceae (Mallow Family)

Alps, Carpathian Mountains, Warm zones of both hemi-

85 Caucasus Mountains, 86 spheres

Lithuania, Latvia, and
Ukraine

This herbaceous annual often These two species are herbs or
grows 1— 3ft (3Q-80cm). The shrubs often up to 9ft (2.7m) in

dull green leaves are longish, height, found in hot lowlands,

pointed, and slightly pileous. The stiff branches are employed
The fleshy root is tapered. The in making rough brooms. The
small, bell-shaped flowers are leaves, lanceolate to obovoid
violet to light yellow and hang and measuring about 1 in.
down individually from the ra- (2.5 cm) wide and up to 4 in.
chis and look similar to the flow- (1 0 cm) long, are beaten in
ers of henbane (Hyoscyamus water to produce a soothing
albus). It flowers April to June. lather for making skin tender.

The fruit develops a capsule The flowers vary from yellow to

with doubled dividing wall and white,
many small seeds. Sida acuta and S, rhombifolia

In Slovenia, Scopolia was are said to be smoked as a sti-

possibly used for the prepara- mulant and substitute for Mari-

tion of witches’ salves. In East juana along the Gulf coastal re-
Prussia, the root was used as a gions of Mexico. Ephedrine is
native narcotic, beer additive, found in the roots of these spe-
and aphrodisiac. Women alleg- cies of Sida. The dried herb
edly used it to seduce young smells distinctly like coumarine.
men into being willing lovers.

The whole plant contains
coumarins (scopoline, scopole-
tine) as well as hallucinogenic
alkaloids (hyoscyamine,
scopolamine) and chlorogenic
acid. Today the plant is grown for
the industrial harvest of
L-hyoscyamine and atropine.

SOLANDRA Sw.

SOPHORA L.

Solandra grandiflora Sw.
Chalice Vine
Solanaceae
(Nightshade Family)

Tropical zones of South
87 America, Mexico

Sophora secunditlora (Ort.) Lag. ex
DC.

Mescal Bean

Leguminosae (Pea Family)
Southwestern North
88 America, Mexico

A luxuriant climbing bush with
showy flowers resembling those
of Brugmansia, Solandra is va-
lued for its hallucinogenic pur-
poses in Mexico. A tea made
from the juice of the branches of
S. brevicalyx and of S. guerrer-
ensis is known to have strong
intoxicant properties. Mentioned
by Hernandez as Tecomaxochitl
or Hueipatl of the Aztecs,

S. guerrerensis is used as an in-
toxicant in Guerrero.

These two species of Solan-
dra are showy, erect, or rather
scandent shrubs with thick ellip-
tic leaves up to about 7 in.
(18cm) in length and with large,
cream-colored or yellow, fra-
grant, funnel-form flowers, up to
10 in. (25 cm) in length and
opening wide at maturity.

The genus Solandra, as
would be expected in view of its
close relationship to Datura,
contains tropane alkaloids:
hyoscyamine, scopolamine,
nortropine, tropine, cuscohy-
grine, and other bases have
been reported.

The beautiful red beans of this
shrub were once used as a hal-
lucinogen in North America.

Sophora secunditlora seeds
contain the highly toxic alkaloid
cytisine, belonging pharmacolo-
gically to the same group as ni-
cotine. It causes nausea, con-
vulsions, and eventually, in high
doses, death through respira-
tory failure. Truly hallucinogenic
activity is unknown for cytisine,
but it is probable that the power-
ful intoxication causes, through
a kind of delirium, conditions
that can induce a visionary
trance.

Sophora secunditlora is a
shrub or small tree up to 35ft
(10.5 m) in height. The ever-
green leaves have 7 to 1 1 glossy
leaflets. The fragrant, violet-blue
flowers, borne in drooping ra-
cemes about 4 in. (1 0 cm) long,
measure up to 114 in. (3cm) in
length. The hard, woody pod,
constricted between each seed,
bears two to eight bright red
beans.

TABERNAEMONTANA L. (120)

Tabernaemontana spp.

Sanango

Apocynaceae (Dogbane Family)
Tropical zones of both
89 hemispheres

Most species of Tabernaemon-
tana are bushy shrubs, climbers,
or small trees. The leaves are
evergreen, lanceolate, often
with a leathery top side. The
flowers consist of five pointed
petals that mostly grow in clus-
ters out of the calyx. The two
symmetrical fruits are divided
and marked with fairly visible
veins. Because of this, they are
easily confused with the testes
of a mammal.

In the Amazon, the Sanango
(' Tabernaemontana sananho R.
et P.) is considered a panacea.
The leaves, roots, and the latex-
rich bark are used in folk medi-
cine. The tree grows as tall as
15 ft (5 m). The leaves are used
as a psychoactive additive to
Ayahuasca. It is used in combi-
nation with Virola in the produc-
tion of an orally effective halluci-
nogen. In the Amazon, Sanango
is also considered a “memory
plant.” Ayahuasca is enhanced
with it in order that the visions
can be better recalled.

Phytochemical research has
recently been done on the
genus. Indole alkaloids are the
primary constituent, in some
even ibogaine and voacangine
have been ascertained. For this
reason, this species is of parti-
cular interest for the discovery
of new psychoactive plants. A
few of the species ( Tabernae -
montana coffeoides Bojer ex
DC., Tabernaemontana crassa
Benth.) have already revealed
psychoactive properties and
uses.

TABERNANTHE Bail!. (2-7)

Tabernanthe iboga Baill.

Iboga

Apocynaceae (Dogbane Family)
Tropical zones of western

90 Africa

Tabernanthe iboga is a shrub 3-
4Vz ft (1-1 .5 m) tall, found in the
undergrowth of tropical forests
but often cultivated in native
dooryards. The shrub has co-
pious white, vile-smelling latex.
The ovate leaves, usually 3V4-
4 in, (9-1 0 cm) long, about
1 'A in. (3 cm) wide (but occa-
sionally up to 8 V 2 by 2 % in. or 22
by 7 cm), are yellowish green
beneath. The tiny yellowish,
pinkish, or white- and pink-
spotted flowers, which grow in
groups of 5 to 12, have a cra-
teriform corolla (a long, slender
tube abruptly flaring at the
mouth) with twisted lobes 'A in.

(1 cm) long, The ovoid, pointed
yellow-orange fruits occur in
pairs and become as large as
olives.

Chemical studies on Taber-
nanthe iboga have shown at
least a dozen indole alkaloids,
the most active being ibogaine,
the effects of which, in toxic
doses, lead to extraordinary
visions; an overdose, to paraly-
sis and death.

TAGETESL. (50) |

Tagetes lucida Cav.

Yauhtli

Compositae (Sunflower Family)

Warm zones of the Americas
9 1 mostly Mexico

The Huichol of Mexico induce
visions by smoking a mixture of
Nicotiana rustica and Tagetes
lucida. They frequently drink a
fermented beer from maize
along with the smoking in order
“to produce clearer visions.”
Tagetes lucida is occasionally
smoked alone.

Tagetes lucida is a strongly
scented perennial herb up to
1 Vi ft (46 cm) tall. The opposite,
leaves are ovate-lanceolate,
toothed, and punctated with oil
glands. The flowering heads are
produced in dense terminal
clusters Vi in. (1 cm) in diameter,
usually yellow to yellow-orange.
This species is native to Mexico,
where it is very abundant in the
states of Nayarit and Jalisco. No
alkaloids have been isolated
from Tagetes, but the genus is
rich in essential oils and thio-
phene derivatives; /-inositol,
saponines, tannins, coumarine
derivatives, and cyanogenic gly-
cosides have been reported.

TANAECIUM Sw. (7)

TETRAPTERIS Cav. (80)

TRICHOCEREUS (A. Berger)
Riccob.

Tanaecium nocturnum (Barb.-Rodr.)
3ur. et K. Schum.

Koribo

Tetrapteris methystica R. E. Schult.
Caapi-pinima

Trichocereus pachanoi
Britt, et Rose
San Pedro Cactus

Bignoniaceae (Bignonia Family)
Tropical zones of Central
92 America and South America,
West Indies

Malpighiaceae (Malpighia Family)
Tropical zones of South
93 America, Mexico,

West Indies

Cactaceae (Cactus Family)

Temperate and warm zones
94 of South America

■■ 1

Tanaecium nocturnum is a
much-branched climber with
broadly elliptic leaves 5Vh in.
(13.5cm) long, 4 in. (10cm)
wide. The white flowers, 6V2 in.
(16.5cm) long, are tubular,
borne in five- to eight-flowered
racemes 3in. (8cm) long, aris-
ing from the stem. The stem,
when cut, emits an odor of al-
mond oil.

The Paumari, who live on the
Rio Purus, create a ritual snuff
that they call koribo-nafuni out of
the leaves. The shamans sniff it
when they are dealing with diffi-
cult cases — for example, in or-
der to extract a magical object
out of the body of the sick per-
son. They also sniff it during a
ritual for protection of children,
during which they fall into a
trance. The snuff is used only by
the men. This species is said to
be prized as an aphrodisiac by
Indians of the Colombian
Choco.

Saponines and tannins have
been found in Tanaecium. The
leaves contain prussic acid and
cyanoglycosides, which disinte-
grate when roasted.

It is uncertain as to whether
the toxin’s waste products con-
tribute to the psychoactive effect
of T. nocturnum. It is not yet
known if there are other active
compounds in the leaves or
other parts of the plant. It is
possible that this plant contains
substances of unknown chemi-
cal structure and pharmacologi-
cal effect.

The nomadic Maku Indians of
the RioTikie in the northwestern
most Amazonas of Brazil pre-
pare a hallucinogenic drink, a
sort of Ayahuasca or Caapi,
from the bark of Tetrapteris
methystica. Reports of the ef-
fects of the drug would suggest
that p-carboline alkaloids are
present.

Tetrapteris methystica (T. mu-
cronata) is a scandent bush with
black bark. The leaves are char-
aceous, ovate, 2'/4-3 3 /e in. (6-
8.5cm) long, 1 —2 in. (2.5-5cm)
wide, bright green above, ashy
green beneath. The inflores-
cence is few-flowered, shorter
than the leaves. The sepals are
thick, hairy without, ovate-lan-
ceolate, with eight black oval-
shaped glands; the petals,
spreading, membranaceous,
yellow with red or brown in the
center, elongate-orbicular, V2 in.
(1 cm) long, 'As in. (2mm) wide.
The fruit, or samara, is ovoid, Vs
by Vs by 'As in. (4 by 4 by 2 mm),
with brownish wings about V2 by
Vi6 in. (10 by 2mm).

This cactus is a branched, often
spineless, columnar plant 9-
20ft (2.75-6m) in height. The
branches, which have 6 to 8 ribs,
are glaucous when young, dark
green in age. The pointed buds
open at night to produce very
large, 7y2-9V4 in. (19-24cm),
funnel-shaped, fragrant flowers
with the inner segments white,
the outer segments brownish
red, and long, greenish stamen
filaments. The fruit, as well as
the scales on the floral tube,
have long black hairs.

Trichocereus pachanoi is rich
in mescaline: 2% of the dried
material or 0.12% of the fresh
material. Other alkaloids have
been reported from the plant:
3,4-dimethoxyphenylethyla-
mine, 3-methoxy-tyramine, and
traces of other bases.

Trichocereus pachanoi (Echi-
nopsis pachanoi) occurs in the
central Andes between 6,000
and 9,000ft (1,830-2, 750m),
particularly in Ecuador and
northern Peru.

( 10 - 20 )

The Voacanga genus has re-
ceived little research. The spe-
cies are similar to one another.
They are multiple-branched,
evergreen shrubs or small trees.
The flowers are mostly yellow or
white with five united petals.
There are two symmetrical
fruits. Latex runs in the bark.

The bark and seeds of the
African Voacanga africana
Stapf. contain up to 10% indole
alkaloids of the iboga type (voa-
camine is the primary alkaloid,
ibogaine) and should be simu-
lating and hallucinogenic. In
West Africa the bark is used as a
hunting poison, stimulant, and
potent aphrodisiac. Supposedly
the seeds are used by African
magicians in order to produce
visions.

The seeds of the Voacanga
grandiflora (Miq.) Rolfe are used
by magicians in West Africa for
visionary purposes. Unfortu-
nately the details are not yet un-
covered, as the knowledge of
the magicians is a closely
guarded secret,

Classification of genera in
the Morning Glory family or
Convolvulaceae has always
been difficult. This species has
at one time or another been
assigned to the genera Convol-
vulus, Ipomoea, Legendrea,
Rivea, and Turbina. Most che-
mical and ethnobotanical stu-
dies have been reported under
the name Rivea corymbosa,
but recent critical evaluation in-
dicates that the most appropri-
ate binomial is Turbina
corymbosa.

Most, if not all, species of Virola
have a copious red “resin” in the
inner bark. The resin from a
number of species is prepared
as a hallucinogenic snuff or
small pellets.

Probably the most important
species is Virola theiodora, a
slender tree 25-75 ft (7.5-23 m)
in height, native to the forests of
the western Amazon basin. The
cylindrical trunk, IV 2 ft (46 cm) in
diameter, has a characteristic
smooth bark that is brown
mottled with gray patches. The
leaves (with a tea-like fragrance
when dried) are oblong or
broadly ovate, 3 V 2 — 1 3 in. (9-
33 cm) long, 1 Vfe— 4Vfe in. (4-
1 1 cm) wide. The male inflores-
cences are many-flowered,
usually brown- or gold-hairy,
shorter than the leaves; the very
small flowers, borne singly or in
clusters of 2 to 1 0, are strongly
pungent. The fruit is subglobose,
%-% in, (1-2 cm) by 'A-Va in. (.5-
1 .5 cm); the seed is covered for
half its length by a membranac-
eous, orange-red aril.

The resin of the Virola con-
tains DMT and 5-MeO-DMT.

TURBINA Raf.

VIROLA Aubl.

(60) I VOACANGA

Turbina corymbosa (L.) Raf
Ololiuqui
Convolvulaceae
(Morning Glory Family)

Tropical zones of the
95 Americas, mostly Mexico
and Cuba

Virola theiodora (Spr.) Warb.
CumalaTree

Myristicaceae (Nutmeg Family)
Tropical zones of Central
96 America and South America

Voacanga spp.

Voacanga

Apocynaceae (Dogbane Family)
Tropical Africa

The seeds of Turbina corymbo-
sa, better known as Rivea cor-
ymbosa, are valued as one of
the major sacred hallucinogens
of numerous Indian groups in
southern Mexico. Their use
goes back to early periods.
Known as Ololiuqui, they were
important in Aztec ceremonies
as an intoxicant with reputedly
analgesic properties.

Turbina corymbosa is a large
woody vine with heart-shaped
leaves 2-3Vfe in. (5-9 cm) long
and 1-1% in. (2 .5-4.5 cm) wide.
The cymes are many-flowered.
The bell-shaped corollas, %-
1 V2 in. (2-4 cm) long, are white
with greenish stripes. The fruit is
dry, indehiscent, ellipsoidal with
persistent, enlarged sepals, and
bears a single hard, roundish,
brown, minutely hairy seed
about Ve in. (3mm) in diameter.
The seeds contain lysergic acid
amide, analogous to LSD.

IpSPi

»&£

WHO USES

HALLUCINOGENIC

PLANTS?

Page 61: The Fly Agaric is used for shamanic purposes worldwide. It has
even been linked to the ancient Indian Soma.

Notwithstanding the recent upsurge in the use of
psychoactive plants in modern Western societies,
the thrust of this book emphasizes almost exclu-
sively the employment of hallucinogens among
aboriginal peoples who have restricted the use of
these plants mostly to magic, medical, or religious
purposes. The outstanding difference between the
use of hallucinogens in our culture and their use in
preindustrial societies is precisely the difference in
the belief concerning their purpose and origin: all
aboriginal societies have considered — and still
do — that these plants are the gifts of the gods, if
not the gods themselves. It is obvious that our cul-
ture does not view hallucinogenic plants in this
light.

There are many examples — and more will be
discussed in the following pages— of plants that
are sacred and even revered as gods. Soma, the an-
cient god-narcotic of India, may be the most out-
standing example. Most hallucinogens are holy
mediators between man and the supernatural, but
Soma was deified. So holy was Soma that it has

been suggested that even the idea of deity may
have arisen from experiences with its unearthly
effects. The sacred Mexican mushrooms have a
long history that is closely linked to shamanism
and religion. The Aztecs called them Teonanacatl
(“divine flesh”), and they were ceremonially in-
gested. Highland Maya cultures in Guatemala
apparently had, more than three thousand years
ago, a sophisticated religion utilizing mushrooms.
Probably the most famous sacred hallucinogen of
the New World, however, is Peyote, which,
among the Huichol of Mexico, is identified with
the deer (their sacred animal) and maize (their
sacred vegetal staff of life). The first Peyote-
collecting expedition was led by Tatewari, the
original shaman, and subsequent annual trips to
collect the plant are holy pilgrimages to Wirikuta,
original paradisiacal home of the ancestors. In

South America, Ayahuasca reveals the real world,
while daily living is an illusion. Ayahuasca means
“tendril of the soul” in Kechwa and comes from
the frequent experience that the soul separates
from the body during the intoxication, commun-
ing with the ancestors and forces of the spirit
world. The drinking of Caapi is a return “to the
maternal womb, to the source and origin of all
things,” and participants see “all the tribal divi-
nities, the creation of the universe, the first human
beings and animals and even the establishment of
the social order” (Reichel-Dolmatoff).

It is not always the shaman or medicine man
who administers these sacred plants. The general
population — usually the adult male portion —
often shares in the use of hallucinogens. Under

Above: The symbols in Huichol mythology are vividly depicted in their popular
sacred art. The beauty of the forms has as a basis the ceremonial use of
Peyote. The yarn painting above, like an Aztec Codex, is a chronicle of the
creation of the world. The gods emerged from the Underworld to Mother
Earth. This was possible because Kauyumari, Our Elder Brother Deer, found
the nierika, or portway. The nierika of Kauyumari (top center) unifies the spirit
of all things and all worlds. Through it all life came into being.

Below Kauyumari’s nierika, Our Mother Eagle (center) lowers her head to
listen to Kauyumari, who sits on a rock, bottom right. His sacred words travel
down a thread to a prayer bowl and are transformed into life energy, depicted
as a white blossom.

Above Kauyumari, the Spirit of Rain, a serpent, gives life to the gods. Tatewari,
first shaman and Spirit of Fire (top center right), is bending down toward Kauyu-
mari listening to his chant. Both are connected to a medicine basket (center
right), which binds them together as shamanic allies. Our Father Sun, seen op-

posite Tatewari on the left, is connected with the Spirit of Dawn, the orange figure
below. The Sun and Spirit of Dawn are both found in Wirikuta, the Sacred Land of
Peyote. Also in Wirikuta is Kauyumari’s nierika and the temple of Elder Brother
Deer Tail. The temple is the black field, lower center. Deer Tail, with redantlers, is
seen with his human manifestation above him. Behind Deer Tail is Our Mother
the Sea. A crane brings her a prayer gourd containing the words of Kauyumari.
Blue Deer (left center) enlivens all sacred offerings. A stream of energy goes from
him toour Mother Sea’s prayer gourd; he also offers his blood to the growing corn,
the staff of life germinating below him, Above Blue Deer is the First Man, who
invented cultivation. First Man faces a sacrificed sheep.

Page 62: This early-sixteenth-century Aztec statue of Xochipilli, the ecstatic
Prince of Flowers, was unearthed in Tlamanalco on the slopes of the volcano
Popocatepetl. The stylized glyphs depict various hallucinogenic plants. From
left to right, the glyphs represent: mushroom cap; tendril of the Morning Glory;
flower of Tobacco; flower of the sacred Morning Glory: bud of Sinicuiche; and.
on the pedestal, stylized caps of Psilocybe aztecorum.

these circumstances, however, use is often strictly
controlled by taboos or ceremonial circumscrip-
tions. In almost all instances, in both the Old and
the New World, the use of hallucinogenic drugs is
restricted to adult males. There are, however,
striking exceptions. Among the Koryak of Siberia,
Amanita may be used by both sexes. In southern
Mexico, the sacred mushrooms can be taken by
both men and women; in fact, the shaman is usual-
ly a woman. Similarly, in the Old World, Iboga
may be taken by any adult, male or female. While
purely speculative, there may be a basic reason for
the exclusion of women from ingesting narcotic
preparations. Many hallucinogens are possibly
sufficiently toxic to have abortifacient effects.
Since women in aboriginal societies are frequently
pregnant during most of their childbearing years,
the fundamental reason may be purely an insur-

“Whether shaman alone,
or shaman and communicants,
or communicants alone
imbibe or ingest Ilex drinks,

Datura infusions, Tobacco, . . .

Peyote cactus, Ololiuqui seeds, mushrooms,
narcotic Mint leaves or Ayahuasca
. . . the ethnographic principle is the same.
These plants contain spirit power.”

— Weston La Barre

ance against abortions — even though this reason
has been forgotten.

Sometimes hallucinogens are administered to
children. Among the Jfvaro, Brugmansia may be
given to boys, who are then admonished by the
ancestors during the intoxication. Frequently,
the first use of a hallucinogen occurs in puberty
rituals.

There is hardly an aboriginal culture without at
least one psychoactive plant: even Tobacco and
Coca may, in large doses, be employed for the in-
duction of visions. An example is the smoking of
Tobacco among the Warao of Venezuela, who use
it to induce a trancelike state accompanied by
what, for all practical purposes, are visions.

Although the New World has many more spe-
cies of plants purposefully employed as hallucino-
gens than does the Old World, both hemispheres
have very limited areas where at least one halluci-
nogen is not known or used. So far as we know,
the Inuit have only one psychoactive plant; the
Polynesian Islanders of the Pacific had Kava-kava
( Piper methysticum), but they seem never to have
had a true hallucinogen in use: Kava-kava is
classed as a hypnotic.

Africa has been poorly studied from the point
of view of drug plants, and may have hallucino-
genic species that have not yet been introduced
to the scientific world. It is, however, possible to
assert that there are few parts of the continent
where at least one such plant is not now utilized
or was not employed at some time in the past.

Asia, a vast continent, has produced relatively
few major hallucinogenic varieties but their use
has been widespread and extremely significant
from a cultural point of view; furthermore, the
use of them is extremely ancient. Numerous
sources describe the use of hallucinogenic and
other intoxicating plants in ancient Europe. Many
researchers see the roots of culture, shamanism,
and religion in the use of psychoactive or halluci-
nogenic plants.

OVERVIEW OF
PLANT USE

Two points stand out in clear relief in
this tabular summary of material set
forth in greater detail in other sections
of the book. It is obvious that: (1) the
sources of information are interdisci-
plinary in nature; and (2) there is urgent
need for deeper studies in view of the
sparsity or vagueness of knowledge in
so many cases.

That progress in future studies will be
made only when they are based on inte-
gration of data, from sundry fields —
anthropology, botany, chemistry, history,

iSK.W

NOTES OF A BOTANIST

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medicine, mythology, pharmacology,
philology, religion, and so on — should
be obvious. And wise handling of such a
wealth of information calls for patience
and breadth of understanding. One of
the first steps in this direction must be
presentation of such diverse material in
easily assimilated outline form — an end
that we have tried to accomplish in this
overview.

It is man living in so-called archaic so-

cieties and intimately familiar with his
ambient vegetation who has discovered
the hallucinogens and bent them to his
use. The relentless march of civilization
is ever increasing in speed and intensity,
reaching even the most remote and hid-
den peoples. Acculturation inevitably
spells the doom of native lore and leads
to the disappearance of knowledge built
up through the ages. It is, therefore,
urgent that we step up the tempo of
research before this knowledge will for-
ever be entombed with the culture that
gave it birth.

Accurate botanical identification of
the source plant is basic to a sound un-
derstanding of hallucinogens. We do not
always have this knowledge. Ideally,
botanical determination of a product
should be made on the basis of a voucher
specimen: only in this way can exactness
be ensured. It is sometimes necessary to
base an identification on a common
name or on a description, in which case
there always may exist some doubt as to
its accuracy. It is equally essential that
chemical investigations be founded
upon properly vouchered material. Bril-
liant phytochemical work too often is
worthless simply because grave doubts
about the identity of the original vegetal
material cannot be dispelled.

Similar deficiencies in other aspects
of our knowledge of hallucinogens and
their use hamper our understanding.
The full cultural significance of mind-
altering plants may not be appreciated.
It is only in very recent years that an-
thropologists have begun to compre-
hend the deep and all-encompassing
role that hallucinogens play in the his-
tory, mythology, and philosophy of
aboriginal societies. In time as this un-
derstanding is appreciated, anthropol-
ogy will advance in its explanation of
many basic elements of human culture.

The material presented in this book is
of necessity concentrated in detail. It
may also at times be diffuse. Realizing
the desirability occasionally of having a
quick means of consultation, we have
striven to assemble the essential facts
and present them in skeletal form in this
Overview of Plant Use.

Key symbols designating plant types in
Overview of Plants Use

XEROPHYTES AND
SUCCULENTS

LIANAS

VINES AND TWINERS
GRASSES AND SEDGES
HERBS

LILY-LIKE PLANTS

FUNGI

ORCHIDS

SHRUBS

TREES

AQUATIC PLANTS

Left: The English botanist Richard
Spruce spent fourteen years in field
research in South America during the
1800’s. An insatiable plant-explorer, he
might be called the prototype of ethno-
botanists of tropical America. His
studies laid the foundation of research
on the hallucinogens Yopo and Caapi —
research still in progress.

Page 64: The Sinu culture of Colombia
(from 1200 to 1600) has yielded many
enigmatic gold pectorals with mush-
roomlike representations. They may
imply the existence of a cult using these
intoxicating fungi, species of which
occur in the area. Many of the pectorals
have winglike structures, possibly
signifying magic flight, a frequent char-
acteristic of hallucinogenic intoxication.

REF. COMMON TYPE OF BOTANICAL USAGE:

NUMBER NAME PLANT NAME HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY

Agara

Gaibulimima belgraveana (F. Muell.) Sprague

Natives in Papua

Angel’s Trumpets

Floripondio

Borrachero

Huacacachu

Huanto

Maicoa

Toe

Tonga

(see also pages 140-143)

Brugmansia arborea (L.) Lagerh.;

B. aurea Lagerh.; B. x insignis (Barb.-Rodr.)
Lockwood ex R. E. Schult.;

B. sanguinea (R. et P.) Don;

B. suaveotens (H. et B. ex Willd.)

Bercht. et Presl.;

B. vers/co/orLagerh.;

B. vulcanicola (A. S. Barclay) R. E. Schult.

Brugmansia are employed in the warmer parts of South
America, especially in the western Amazon, under the
name of Toe.

Also used by the Mapuche Indians of Chile, the Chib-
cha of Colombia, and known to Peruvian Indians as
Huacacachu.

Ayahuasca

Caapi

Yaje

(see also pages 124-139)

Banisteriopsis caapi ( Spruce exGriseb.) Morton;
B. inebrians Morton; B. rusbyana (Ndz.) Morton;
Diplopterys cabrerana (Cuatr.) B. Gates

Used in the western half of the Amazon Valley and by
isolated tribes on the Pacific slopes of the Colombian
and Ecuadorean Andes.

Badoh Negro

Piule

Tlililtzin

(see also pages 1 70-1 75)

Ipomoea violacea L.

Oaxaca, southern Mexico.

Known to the Aztecs as Tlililtzin and employed in
the same way as Ololiuqui, Ipomoea is called Piule by
the Chinantec and Mazatec, and Badoh Negro by the
Zapotec.

Bakana

Hikuli

Wichuri

Coryphantha compacta (Engelm.)
Britt, et Rose; C. spp.

The Tarahumara Indians of Mexico consider C. com-
pacta (Wichuri, also referred to as Bakana or Bakana-
wa) a kind of Peyote or Hikuli (see Peyote).

Bakana

Scirpus sp.

A species of Scirpus is apparently one of the most
powerful herbs of the Tarahumara Indians of Mexico.

The Indians fear the plant because of possible
insanity.

Blue Water Lily
Ninfa

Quetzalaxochiacatl

Nymphaea ampla (Solisb.) DC.;
N. caerulea Sav.

Caapi-Pinima
Caapi (see Ayahuasca)

Tetrapteris methystica R, E. Schul.;
T. mucronata Cav.

Water Lilies enjoyed an exceptionally prominent place in
the mythology and art of Minoan and dynastic Egyptian
cultures, in India and China, as well as in the Mayan
world from the Middle Classical period until the inception
of the Mexican period.

Among Old and New World similarities is the relation
of N. ampia to the toad, itself associated with hallucino-
genic agents, and the relation of the plant to death.

Caapi-Pinima is employed by the nomadic Maku Indians
of the Rio Tikie in the northwestern Amazon of Brazil.
They call it Caapi, the same as Banisteriopsis. Several
writers have mentioned “more than one kind’’ of Caapi in
the Rio Vaupes area of Brazil and adjacent Colombia.

Cawe

Wichowaka

Pachycereus pecten-aboriginum (Engelm.)
Britt, et Rose

Employed by the Tarahumara Indians of Mexico, Wicho-
waka means “insanity" in the local language.

Cebfl

Villca

Yopo

(see also pages 116-119)

Anadenanthera colubrina (Veil.) Brenan;

A. colubrina (Veil.) Brenan var.
Ceb//(Griseb.) Altschul;

A. peregrina (L.) Speg.;

A. peregrina (L.) Speg. var. falcata (Benth.)
Altschul

A. peregrina is used today by tribes of the Orinoco basin
(Yopo) and was first reported in 1946. No longer used in
the West Indies.

Indians of Argentina (Villca or Huilca) and southern
Peru (Cebfl) are believed to have employed A. colubrina
in precolonial times.

Cebolleta

d!®

rg©'

Oncidium cebolleta (Jacq.) Sw.

It is suspected that the Tarahumara of Mexico make use
of this orchid.

Chacruna
Chacruna Bush
Cahua

Psychotria viridis Ruiz et Pavon

Used for ages in the Amazon region as a significant in-
gredient of Ayahuasca.

USAGE

CONTEXT AND PURPOSE

PREPARATION

CHEMICAL COMPONENTS
AND EFFECTS

Hallucinogenic intoxication

The bark and leaves of this tree are boiled with a spe-
cies of Homalomena to prepare a tea.

Although 28 alkaloids have been isolated, a psychoac-
tive principle has not yet been found.

Visions of men and animals to be killed are experi-
enced.

The Indians of Sibundoy use Brugmansia for magico-
rnedicinal purposes, the Mapuche as medicine for
recalcitrant children.

The Chibcha formerly gave fermented Chicha with
Brugmansia seeds to wives and slaves of dead chief-
tains to induce a stupor before they were buried alive
with their husbands or masters.

Indians in Peru still believe that Brugmansia permits
them to communicate with ancestors and that it can
reveal treasures preserved in graves.

The drug is usually taken in the form of powdered
seeds added to fermented drinks, or as a tea made of
the leaves.

All species of Brugmansia are chemically similar, with
scopolamine as their principal psychoactive constitu-
ent. Content of lesser alkaloids is also similar.

A dangerous hallucinogen, Brugmansia brings on an
intoxication often so violent that physical restraint is
necessary before the onset of a deep stupor, during
which visions are experienced.

Usually drunk in religious ceremonies.

In the famous Tukanoan Yuruparf ceremony in Co-
lombia — an adolescent initiation ritual for boys. The
Jfvaro believe that Ayahuasca makes possible com-
munication with ancestors and that, under its influ-
ence, a man’s soul may leave the body and wander
free.

The bark, prepared in cold or boiling water, may be
taken alone or with additives — especially the leaves of
B. rusbyana (Diptopterys cabrerana) and of Psychotria
viridis — which alter the effects.

The bark can also be chewed. Recent evidence from
the northwestern Amazon suggests that the plants are
also used in the form of a snuff.

The hallucinogenic activity is primarily due to harmine,
the major [3-carboline alkaloid in the plants.

Effects of taking the bitter and nauseating drink
range from pleasant intoxication with no hangover to
violent reactions with sickening aftereffects. Usually,
visual hallucinations in color occur. The intoxication
ends with a deep sleep and dreams.

n southern Mexico, this vine is respected as one of
the principal hallucinogens for use in divination,
magico-religious, and curing rituals.

A drink is prepared from about a thimbleful of the
crushed seeds.

The alkaloid content is five times that of Turbina
corymbosa; accordingly natives use fewer seeds. The
same alkaloids are found in other Morning Glories but
usage is restricted to Mexico. (See Ololiuqui.)

Medicinal purposes.

Taken by shamans as a potent medicine and greatly
feared and respected by the Indians.

The aboveground Teuile ("meat” of the cactus) is eaten
fresh or dried. Eight to twelve cactus “tops” are an
adequate dose.

Various alkaloids, including phenylethylamines, have
been isolated from Coryphantha, a promising genus for
future studies.

Scirpus plays an important role in folk medicine
and as a hallucinogen; it must be treated with great
everence.

The tuberous roots of Scirpus are often collected from
faraway places.

Alkaloids have been reported from Scirpus and related
sedges. The Indians believe that they can travel to dis-
tant places, talk with their ancestors, and have colored
visions.

There exist numerous interesting parallels between
the ritualistic (shamanic) significance of Nymphaea in
the Old and the New Worlds, suggesting that Nym-
phaea may have been used as a narcotic, possibly a
hallucinogen.

N. amp/a has recently been reported to be used in
Mexico as a recreational drug with “powerful halluci-
natory effects.”

Dried flowers and buds of Nymphaea amp/a are
smoked. The rhizomes are eaten raw or cooked. The
buds of N. caerula are used to make a tea.

The alkaloids apomorphine, nuciferine, and nornuci-
ferine, isolated from the rhizomes of N. ampla, may be
responsible for the psychotropic activity.

Hallucinogenic intoxication.

A drink is prepared from the bark of T. melhystica in
cold water. The infusion is yellowish, unlike the brown-
ish color of the beverage prepared from Banisteriopsis.

It has not been possible as yet to carry out chemical
examination of T. methystica, but reports of the effects
of the drug would suggest that the same or similar
|3-carboline alkaloids are present as in Banisteriopsis.

There are several purely medicinal uses of this
cactus.

A hallucinogenic drink is prepared from the juice of the
young branches of P. pecten-aboriginum.

4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenylethylamine and fourtetra-
hydroisoquinoline alkaloids have been isolated.

It causes dizziness and visual hallucinations.

Now smoked as a hallucinogenic intoxicant by Indians
n northern Argentina.

The snuff is prepared from the beans, which are
usually moistened, rolled into a paste, and dried by
toasting.

When pulverized to a gray-green powder, it is mixed
with an alkaline plant ash or snail shell lime.

Tryptamine derivatives and fj-carbolines.

A twitching of the muscles, slight convulsions, and
lack of muscular coordination followed by nausea,
visual hallucinations, and disturbed sleep. Macropsia.

Reportedly used as a hallucinogen, 0. cebolleta is
employed as a temporary surrogate for Peyote.

Unknown.

An alkaloid has been reported from 0. cebolleta.

This bush has great cultural significance as a DMT-
oroviding ingredient of the hallucinogen Ayahuasca,
which has a central place in the shamanic tradition of
the Amazon.

Fresh or dried leaves are mixed with vines or the husk
of Banisteriopsis caapi and cooked. The preparation is
drunk as Ayahuasca (Caapi, Yage).

The leaves contain 0.1 % to 0.61 % N,N,-DMT, as well
as traces of other alkaloids.

REF

NUMBER

COMMON

NAME

TYPE OF BOTANICAL
PLANT NAME

USAGE;

HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY

Chiricaspi

Chiric-Sanango

Manaka

Brunfelsia chiricaspi Plowman;

B. grandiflora D. Don;

B. grandiflora D. Don subsp. schultesii Plowman

Brunfelsia is known as Borrachero (“the intoxicator”) to
Colombian Indians, and as Chiricaspi (“cold tree”) in
westernmost Amazonia (Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru).

Colorines

Chilicote

Tzompanquahuitl

Erythrina americana Mill.;

E. coralloides Mo c. et Sesse ex DC.;
E. flabelliformis Kearney

The beans of various species are frequently sold with
those of Sophora secundiflora (Mescal Beans) in
Mexico. They are used as amulets or charms.

Common Reed

fll

Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trinius ex Steudel

Used for medicinal purposes since ancient times. Psy-
choactive use is a recent phenomenon.

Copelandia

Jambur

Panaeolus cyanescens Berk, et Br,;
Copelandia cyanescens (Berk, et Br.) Singer

Cultivated on cowand buffalo dung in Bali.

Cowhage

Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC.

India. Used in Ayurvedic medicine. The seeds are used
worldwide as charms or amulets.

Dama da Noite
(Lady of the Night)
Palqui
Maconha

Oestrum laevigatum Schlecht; Coastal regions of southern Brazil, southern Chile.

Oestrum parqui L'Herit.

Datura

Dutra

(see also pages 1 06-1 1 1 )

Datura metel L,

D. mefe/is mentioned as a hallucinogenic plant in early
Sanskrit and Chinese writings.

Known as a drug to the Arabian physician Avicenna in
the eleventh century.

Employed today especially in India, Pakistan, and Af-
ghanistan.

D. ferox, a related Old World species, plays a minor
role.

Deadly Nightshade
Belladonna

(see also pages 86-91 )

Atropa belladonna L.

Europe, Near East.

Deadly Nightshade figured as an important ingredient in
many of the witches’ brews of the Middle Ages.

Atropa played a prominent role in the mythology of
most European peoples.

El Nene
El Ahijado
El Macho

Coleus blumei Benth.; C. pumilus Blanco

Native to the Philippine Islands, two species of this plant
have acquired significance similar to Salvia in southern
Mexico among the Mazatec Indians.

Epena

Nyakwana

Yakee

(see also pages 1 76-1 81 )

1 *

Virola calophylla Warb.;

V. calophylloidea Markgr.;

V. elongata (Spr. ex Benth.) Warb.;
V. theiodora (Spr.) Warb.

In Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela and Peru a number of
species of Virola are used, the most important of which
appears to be V. theiodora.

The hallucinogenic snuff has various names depend-
ing on the locality or tribe, with the most commonly re-
cognized terms being Parica, Epena, and Nyakwana in
Brazil, Yakee and Yato in Colombia.

Ereriba

Homalomena sp.

The natives of Papua are reported to use Homalomena.

Ergot

(see also pages 1 02-1 05)

Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tulasne

It has recently been convincingly argued that Ergot
played a role in the Eleusinian mysteries of ancient
Greece.

When accidentally ground up with rye flour during the
Middle Ages, Ergot (which grows primarily as a fungal
disease on rye) poisoned whole districts with ergotism
These mass poisonings became known as St. Antho-
ny's fire.

USAGE.

CONTEXT AND PURPOSE

PREPARATION

CHEMICAL COMPONENTS
AND EFFECTS

in Amazonian folk medicine, Brunfelsia plays a major
magico-religious role.

Used as an additive to the hallucinogenic drink Yaje
(see Ayahuasca).

The Kofan of Colombia and Ecuador and the Jivaro of
Ecuador add Brunfelsia to Yaje, prepared basically
from Banisteriopsis (see Ayahuasca). It heightens the
hallucinogenic effects.

Scopoletine has been found in Brunfelsia, but this
compound is not known to be psychoactive.

A sensation of chills follows ingestion, an effect that
has given rise to the name Chiricaspi (“cold tree”).

The plant may once have been used by the Tarahu-
mara, who value the beans medicinally.

The red beans are often mixed with the similar ones of
Sophora secundiflora.

Some species of Erythrina contain alkaloids of the er-
ythran type, producing effects similar to those of curare
or cytisine.

Used today as a DMT-delivering agent for Ayahuasca
analogs.

Twenty to 50 g of roots are boiled with 3 g of seeds from
Peganum harmala and the preparation is consumed as
a drink.

The roots contain the psychedelic or vision-inducing
alkaloid N, N- DMT, 5-MEO-DMT, Bufotenin, and the
toxin gramine.

Used in native festivals in Bali and reportedly sold to
foreign visitors as a hallucinogen.

The mushrooms are eaten fresh or dried.

Up to 1 .2% of psilocineand 0.6% of psilocybine have
been found in C. cyanescens, which is the highest
content of these alkaloids found in hallucinogenic
mushrooms.

Indian peoples may have utilized the psychoactive
properties.

Mucuna is considered an aphrodisiac in India.

Powdered seeds. Source of DMT for Ayahuasca
analogs.

Although Mucuna has not been reported as a halluci-
nogen, it is rich in psychoactive alkaloids (such as
DMT) capable of inducing behavioral changes equita-
ble with hallucinogenic activity.

The Mapuche of southern Chile smoke Palqui.

The leaves are smoked as a substitute for Marijuana.

The unripened fruit, leaves, and flowers contain sapo-
nines that are not known to be hallucinogenic.

Used as an aphrodisiac in the East Indies.
Valuable drug.

Ceremonial intoxication and recreation.

Powdered seeds added to wine.

The seeds are added to alcoholic drinks, to Canna-
bis cigarettes or tobacco, and occasionally to the betel
chew mixture.

SeeToloache.

Witches' brews; the sabbat.

Today, A. belladonna is an important source for
medicinal drugs.

The entire plant contains psychoactive constituents.

The plant contains alkaloids, capable of inducing hal-
lucinations. The main psychoactive constituent is
hyoscyamine, but lesser amounts of scopolamine and
trace amounts of minor tropane alkaloids are also
present.

Having magico-religious significance, Coleus is used
as a divinatory plant.

The leaves are chewed fresh or the plants are ground,
then diluted with water for drinking.

No hallucinogenic principle has yet been discovered in
the 150 known Coleus species.

Epena or Nyakwana may be snuffed ceremonially by
all adult males, occasionally even without any ritual
connection. The medicine men use the drug in diag-
nosis and treatment of illnesses.

The use of Yakee or Parica is restricted to shamans.

Some Indians scrape the inner layer of the bark and dry
the shavings over a fire. When pulverized, powdered
leaves of Juslicia, the ashes of Amasita, the bark of
Elizabeths princeps may be added.

Other Indians fell the tree, collect the resin, boil it to a
paste, sun-dry the paste, crush and sift it. Ashes of sev-
eral barks and the leaf powder of Justicia may be added .

A further method is to knead the inner shavings of
freshly stripped bark and to squeeze out the resin and
boil it to a paste, which is sun-dried and prepared into
snuff with ashes added.

A group of Maku Indians in the Colombian Vaupes
ingest the unprepared resin as it is collected from the
bark.

Tryptamine and |3-carboline alkaloids, 5-methoxydi-
methyltryptamine and dimethyltryptamine (DMT),
being the main constituents, are responsible for the
hallucinogenic activity. Effects of the intoxication vary.
They usually include initial excitability, setting in within
several minutes from the first snuffing. Then follows
numbness of the limbs, twitching of the facial muscles,
inability to coordinate muscular activity, nausea, visual
hallucinations, and finally, a deep, disturbed sleep.

Plants are used in traditional medicine and.to create
hallucinogenic dreams.

The leaves are eaten with the leaves and bark of Gal-
bulimima belgraveana (see Agara).

Little is known still of the constituents of this genus.
Violent derangement is followed by slumber with
visions.

It appears that Ergot has never been utilized pur-
posefully as a hallucinogen in medieval Europe.
Employed extensively as a medicine by midwives in
cases of difficult childbirth during the Middle Ages,
Ergot induced contractions of involuntary muscles
and was a strong vasoconstrictor.

Used for psychoactive purposes. Taken as a cold-
water infusion. Dosage is difficult to determine and can
be dangerous!

Ergoline alkaloids, mainly derivatives of lysergic acid,
are the pharmacologically active constituents of Ergot.
Ergot alkaloids or derivatives of them are the basis of
important medicines used today in obstetrics, internal
medicine, and psychiatry. The most potent hallucino-
gen, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), is a synthetic
derivative of Ergot.

REF

NUMBER

COMMON

NAME

TYPE OF BOTANICAL
PLANT NAME

USAGE:

HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY

Esakuna

Cymbopogon densiflorus Stapf

Used by medicine men in Tanzania.

Fang-K’uei

Peucedanum japonicum Thunb.

China

Fly Agaric

(see also pages 82-85)

Amanita muscaria (L. ex Fr.) Pers.

Finno-Ugrian peoples in eastern and western Siberia.
Several groups of Athabaskan peoples of North
America. A. muscaria could very well be the mysterious
god-narcotic Soma of ancient India, taken by the Aryans
3,500 years ago.

Galanga

Maraba

Kaempferia galanga L.

There are vague reports that Galanga is employed as a
hallucinogen in New Guinea.

Genista

fft

Cytisus canadensis (L.) O. Kuntze

Although native to the Canary Islands, Genista was in-
corporated in aboriginal American societies.

Genista has apparently acquired an important role
among the Yaqui Indians of Mexico.

Gi’-i-Wa

Gi'-i-Sa-Wa

Lycoperdon marginatum Vitt. ;
L. mixtecorum Heim

In southern Mexico, the Mixtec of Oaxaca employ two
species to induce a condition of half-sleep. There seems
to be no ceremony connected with the use.

1 n northern Mexico, among the Tarahumara of Chi-
huahua, a species of Lycoperdon, known as Kalamota,
is employed.

Henbane

(see also pages.86-91)

Hyoscyamus nigerL:, H. aibus L.

During the Middle Ages, Henbane was an ingredient qf
the witches' brews and ointments.

In ancient Greece and Rome, reports of “magic
drinks” indicate that Henbane frequently served as an
ingredient. It has been suggested that the priestesses c
Delphi prophesied under the influence of Henbane.

Hierba de la Pastora
Hierba de la Virgen
Pipiltzintzintli

Salvia divinorum Epl. et Jativa-M.

Used by the Mazatec Indians of Mexico as a substitute
for psychoactive mushrooms, S. divinorum (“of the divi-
ners”) is called “herb of the shepherdess.” It is commonly
believed to be the narcotic Pipiltzintzintli of the Aztec
Indians.

Hikuli Mulato
Hikuli Rosapara

Epithelantha micromeris (Engelm.)
Weber ex Britt, et Rose

One of the “false Peyotes” of the Tarahumara Indians of
Chihuahua and the Huichol of northern Mexico.

Hikuli Suname
Chautle

Peyote Cimarron
Tsuwiri

Ariocarpus fissuratus Schumann;
A. retusus Scheidw.

The Tarahumara Indians in northern and central Mexico
assert that A. fissuratus is stronger than Peyote (Lo-
phophora).

Huichol Indians of Mexico.

Iboga

(see also pages 1 1 2-1 1 5)

Tabernanthe iboga Baill.

In Gabon and the Congo, the cult surrounding Iboga
provides the natives with the strongest single force
against the missionary spread of Christianity and Islam
in this region.

Jurema

Ajuca

Tepescohuite

Mimosa hostilis (Mart.) Benth.;

M. verrucosa Benth. = Mimosa tenuiflora
(Willd.) Poir.

Valued in eastern Brazil, where several tribes in Pernam-
buco use the plant in ceremonials; also employed by var-
ious now extinct tribes of the same area.

Kanna

Mesembryanthemum expansum L. ;

M. tortuosum L. = Sceletium tortuosum (L.)

N. E.Br.

Over two centuries ago, Dutch explorers reported that
the Hottentots of South Africa employed the root of a
plant known as Channa or Kanna.

USAGE:

CONTEXTAND PURPOSE

PREPARATION

CHEMICAL COMPONENTS
AND EFFECTS

Employed to cause dreams in order to foretell the fu-
ture.

Smoking of the flowers, either alone or with tobacco.

It is not known to which compound the alleged halluci-
nogenic activity has to be attributed.

Folk medicine.

The root of Fang-K’uei is employed medicinally in
China.

Alkaloidal constituents have been reported from Peu-
cedanum, but whether or not theyare of hallucinogenic
types is not known. Coumarins and furocoumarinsare
widespread in the genus; both occur in P japonicum.

Shamanistic inebriation.

Religious significance; healing ceremonies.
Religious ceremonies.

One or several mushrooms are taken sun-dried or
slowly toasted over a fire. They may also be drunk as
an extract in water or reindeer milk or with the juice of
Vaccinium oliginorum or Epilobium angustifolium. Ri-
tualistic drinking of the urine of intoxicated individuals
in Siberia also occurs.

Ibotenic acid, Muscimole, Muscazone.

Euphoria, colored visions, macropsia; on occasion
religious fervor and deep sleep may occur.

Hallucinogenic intoxication (?), folk medicine, aphro-
disiac.

The highly aromatic rhizome is valued locally as a
condiment; a tea from the leaves is employed in folk
medicine.

Beyond the high content of essential oil (to which hal-
lucinogenic activity might be due) in the rhizome of this
relative of Ginger, little is known of the chemistry.

Ceremonial use in Native American tribes.

Employed especially by the medicine men as a hal-
lucinogen in magic ceremonies.

The seeds are valued by Yaqui medicine men.

Cytisus is rich in the lupine alkaloid cytisine.

Hallucinogenic activity has not been reported from
cytisine, but it is known to be toxic.

Used as auditory hallucinogen.

Taken by sorcerers to enable them to approach
people without being detected and to make people
sick.

The fungi are eaten.

There is as yet no phytochemical basis to explain the
psychotropic effects.

Witches’ brews; magic infusions.
Induces a clairvoyant trance.

The dried herb is smoked as a cigarette or smoked in a
smokehouse. The seeds are mainly smoked. The
seeds are used as a substitute for hops in making beer.
Dosage varies from person to person.

The active principles in this solanaceous genus are
tropane alkaloids, especially hyoscyamine and scopo-
lamine, the latter being mainly responsible for the
hallucinogenic effects.

in Oaxaca, Mexico, the Mazatec Indians cultivate
S. divinorum for its hallucinogenic properties in divi-
natory rituals.

It is apparently used when Teonanacatl or Ololiuqui
seeds are rare.

The leaves are chewed fresh or crushed on a metate,
then diluted with water and filtered for a drink.

The main active ingredient, salvinorin A, can bring
about extreme hallucinations when inhaled in amounts
of 250 to 500 meg.

Medicine men take Hikuli Mulato to make their sight
clearer and permit them to commune with sorcerers. It
is taken by runners as a stimulant and “protector” and
the Indians believe that it prolongs life.

Cactus flesh is eaten fresh or dried.

Alkaloids and triterpenes have been reported.

This cactus is reportedly able to drive evil people to
insanity and throw them from cliffs.

Valuing it in witchcraft, the Tarahumara believe that
thieves are powerless to steal when this cactus calls
its soldiers to its aid.

The Huichol consider Ariocarpus to be evil, insisting
that it may cause permanent insanity.

Consumed either fresh or crushed in water.

Several phenylethylamine alkaloids have been
isolated.

Iboga is known to be used as a hallucinogen in magico-
religious context, especially the Bwiti cult, and serves
to seek information from ancestors and the spirit world,
hence “a coming to terms with death.” Moreover, intox-
ication is practiced in the initiation ceremonies.

The drug also has the reputation of a powerful
stimulant and aphrodisiac.

Fresh or dried roots are eaten pure, or added to palm
wine. Roughly lOg of dried root powder induces a
psychedelic effect.

Iboga contains at least a dozen indole alkaloids, ibo-
gaine being the most important. Ibogaine is a strong
psychic stimulant that in high doses produces also
hallucinogenic effects.

The hallucinogenic use of Mimosa hostilis in ceremo-
nies seems to have nearly disappeared today. Em-
ployed in connection with warfare.

The root of Mimosa hostilis was the source of a “mira-
culous drink,” known locally as Ajuca or Vinho de Jure-
ma.

One active alkaloid identical with the hallucinogenic N,
/V-dimethy!-tryptamine has been isolated.

Probably once used as a vision-inducing hallucino-
gen.

In the hinterlands of South Africa, the roots and leaves
are still smoked.

Apparently, the leaves are sometimes dried after
fermentation and chewed as an inebriant.

The common name is today applied to several species
of Sceletium and Mesembryanthemum that have alka-
loids - mesembrine and mesembrenine - with sedative
activities capable of inducing torpor.

Kanna produces a strong intoxication.

REF.

NUMBER

COMMON

NAME

TYPE OF BOTANICAL
PLANT NAME

USAGE:

HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY

Kieli/Kieri

Hueipatl

Tecomaxochitl

Solandra brevicalyx Standi, ;
S. guerrerensis Martinez

Mentioned by Hernandez as Tecomaxochitl or Hueipatl
of the Aztec Indians.

In the mythology and symbolism of the Mexican Hui-
chol and other tribes, several species of Solandra are
important.

Koribo

Tanaecium nocturnum (Barb.-Rodr.)
Bur. et K. Schum.

Employed by the Karitiana Indians of the Rio Madeira in
Amazonian Brazil.

Kratom

Biak-Biak

Mitragyna speciosa Korthals

In the 19th century, Kratom was known as an opium
substitute in Thailand and Malaysia.

Kwashi

Pancratium trianthum Herbert

Kwashi is employed by the Bushmen, in Dobe,
Botswana.

Latue

Arbol de los Brujos

Latua pubiflora (Griseb.) Baill.

Formerly used by the Mapuche Indian shamans of
Valdivia, Chile.

Liberty Cap

Psilocybe semilanceata (Fries) Quelet

It is possible that this fungus has been used for psycho-
active purposes in Central Europe for about 1 2,000
years. Earlier, it was usedasa hallucinogen by theAlpen
nomads and has also been used in European witchcraft.

Lion's Tail

Wild Dagga "

Dacha

Leonitis leonurus (L.) R. Br.

This herb has been used as a narcotic in southern Africa
since ancient times.

Maiden's Acacia

Acacia maideniiF. von Muell.;
A. phlebophylla F. von Muell.;
A. simplicifolia Druce

Many Acacias are used in traditional medicine. The
psychoactive use of Acacia, which contains DMT, is very
recent and has been developed especially in Australia
and California.

Malva Colorada

Chichibe

Axocatzin

Sida acuta Burm.; S. rhombifolia L.

Sida acuta and Sida rhombifolia are said to be smoked
along the Gulf Coast of Mexico.

Mandrake

(see also pages 86-91)

Mandragora ofticinarum L.

Mandrake has a complex history in the Old World.

The root of Mandrake can be likened to the human
form, hence its magic.

Marijuana

Bhang

Charas

Dagga

Ganja

Hashish

Hemp

Kif

Ta Ma

(see also pages 92-1 01 )

Cannabis sativa L.; C. indica Lam.

In India, use of Cannab^ las had religious significance.

Specimens Qeari«,@| years old have turned up in an
Egyptian site. 1 U] °

In ancient TfrvB§C^h£*®ant was made into a drink with
opium-like effect?^ Ur

The Scythians, who threw Hemp seeds and leaves on
hot stones in steam baths to produce an intoxicating
smoke, grew the plant along the Volga 3,000 years ago.

Chinese tradition puts the use of the plant back 4,800
years.

Indian medical writing, compiled before 1000 b. c., re-
ports therapeutic uses of Cannabis.

The Greek physician Galen wrote, about a. d. 1 60, that
general use of Cannabis in cakes produced intoxication.

In 13th-century Asia Minor, organized murderers,
rewarded with Hashish, were known as hashishins, from
which may come the term assassin in European
languages.

Mashihiri

Justicia pectoralis Jacq. var.
stenophylla Leonard

The Waika and other Indians of the uppermost Orinoco
and the adjacent parts of northwestern Brazil cultivate
Justicia.

USAGE:

CONTEXT AND PURPOSE

PREPARATION

CHEMICAL COMPONENTS
AND EFFECTS

The Huichol worship and fear Solandra as a god-nar-
cotic, Kieli, a powerful aid in sorcery. Realizing the
close relationship of Solandra, Datura, and Brugman-
s fa, the Huichol sometimes combine their use: they
distinguish between Datura inoxia or Kielitsa (“bad
Kieli”) and the real Kieli or Solandra.

S. guerrerensis is known to be employed as an
intoxicant in the state of Guerrero.

A tea made from the juice of the branches of both spe-
cies is known to be employed as an intoxicant.

The genus Solandra, closely related to Datura, con-
tains hyoscyamine, scopolamine, nortropine, tropine,
scopine, cuscohygrine, and other tropane alkaloids
with strong hallucinogenic effects.

Folk medicine.

This species is said to be praised as an aphrodisiac
by Indians of the Colombian Choco.

A tea is made of the leaves of this liana and those of an
unidentified plant as a remedy for diarrhea.

Reports from botanical collectors of the odor of T. noc-
turnurn suggest that cyanogenesis occurs in this spe-
cies. Saponines and tannins have been isolated.

In Southeast Asia, the leaves are chewed or smoked
for use as a stimulant or a narcotic.

Fresh leaves are chewed, dried, and smoked, or taken
internally as a tea or extract. The leaves are sometimes
used together with Betel.

The entire plant contains alkaloids, of which Mitragy-
nine is the main active ingredient. Mitragynine, which is
chemically similar to yohimbine and psilocybine, is a
very powerful psychoactive substance.

Reportedly used as a hallucinogen and in folk medi-
cine.

Religious importance assumed in tropical West Africa.

The bulbs are cut in two and rubbed over incisions on
the scalp. This custom most closely approaches the
Western habit of injecting medicine.

Many of the 1 5 species contain very toxic alkaloids.
The toxic state may be accompanied by hallucinogenic
symptoms.

Latue is a virulent poison once used to induce delir-
ium, hallucinations, and even permanent insanity.

Dosages were a secret closely guarded. The fresh fruit
was preferentially employed.

The leaves and fruit contain 0.15% hyoscyamine and
0.08 % of scopolamine, responsible for hallucinogenic
activity.

This mushroom has been used worldwide for its hal-
lucinogenic and vision-inducing qualities.

Eaten fresh or dried. Thirty fresh mushrooms or
roughly 3g of dried mushrooms is a sufficient psyche-
delic dose.

Contains high concentrations of psilocybin, and some
psilocine and baeocystine (the total alkaloid concen-
tration is roughly 1 % of the dried mass). This is a
potent hallucinogen.

The Hottentots and bush people smoke the plant as a
narcotic or as a substitute for Cannabis.

The dried buds and leaves are smoked either alone or
mixed with tobacco.

There have been no chemical studies to date.

Acacia resin is used in conjunction with Pituri by the
Australian Aborigines. Today, various varieties of
Acacia are used as DMT sources and also in the pre-
paration of Ayahuasca analogs for hallucinogenic
experiences.

Extracts from the husk and leaves of A. maidenii, the
bark of A. simplicifolia, or the leaves of A. phlebophylla
are combined with the seeds from Peganum harmala.

Many varieties of Acacia contain the psychedelic sub-
stance, DMT. The bark of A. maidenii contains 0.36%
DMT; the leaves of A. phlebophylla contain 0.3% DMT.
The bark of A. simplicifolia can contain up to 3.6% al-
kaloids, of which DMTaccounts for roughly one third.

Employed as a stimulant and substitute for Marijuana.

Smoking.

Ephedrine, which induces a mild stimulating effect, has
been reported from these species of Sida.

Used as a panacea, Mandrake played an extraordin-
ary role as a magic plant and hallucinogen in Eur-
opean folklore. An active hallucinogenic ingredient of
the witches’ brews, Mandrake was probably the most
potent admixture.

There existed various precautions in pulling the root
from the earth because the plant’s unearthly shrieks
could drive collectors mad.

Tropane alkaloids with hyoscyamine as the main con-
stituent besides scopolamine, atropine, mandragorine,
and others are the psychoactive constituents. The total
content of tropane alkaloids in the root is 0.4%.

Cannabis has a long history of use in folk medicine
and as a psychoactive substance.

It is the source of fiber, an edible fruit, an industrial
oil, a medicine, and an intoxicant.

Use of Cannabis has grown in popularity in the past
40 years as the plant has spread to nearly all parts of
the globe. Increase in the plant’s use as an inebriantin
Western countries, especially in urban centers, has
led to major problems and dilemmas for European
and American authorities. There is a sharp division of
opinion as to whether the widespread use of Canna-
b/'sis a vice that must be stamped out or is an innoc-
uous habit that should be permitted legally. The sub-
ject is debated hotly, usually with limited knowledge.

Methods of consuming Cannabis vary. In the New
World, Marijuana (Maconha in Brazil) is smoked — the
dried, crushed flowering tips or leaves are often mixed
with tobacco or other herbs in cigarettes. Hashish, the
resin from the female plant, is eaten or smoked, often
in water pipes, by millions in Muslim countries of
northern Africa and western Asia. In Afghanistan and
Pakistan, the resin is commonly smoked. East Indians
regularly employ three preparations: Bhang consists of
plants that are gathered green, dried and made into a
drink with water or milk or into a candy (majun) with
sugar and spices; Charas, normally smoked or eaten
with spices, is pure resin; Ganja, usually smoked with
tobacco, consists of resin-rich dried tops from the
female plant.

The psychoactive principles — cannabinotic com-
pounds— are found in greatest concentration in a resin
produced most abundantly in the region of the pistillate
inflorescence. A fresh plant yields mainly cannabidiolic
acids, precursors of the tetrahydrocannabinols and re-
lated constituents, such as cannabinol and cannabi-
diol. The main effects are attributable to A 1 -3,4-trans-
tetrahydrocannabinol.

The principal effect is euphoria. Everything from a
mild sense of ease to hallucinations, from feelings of
exaltation and inner joy to depression and anxiety have
been reported. The drug’s activities beyond the centra!
nervous system seem to be secondary. They consist of
a rise in pulse rate and blood pressure, tremor, vertigo,
difficulty in muscular coordination, increased tactile
sensitivity, and dilation of the pupils.

The natives mix Justicia leaves with the snuff pre-
pared from Virola (see Epena) to “make the snuff
smell better”

The leaves are dried and pulverized.

Tryptamines have been suspected from several spe-
cies of Justicia.

REF

NUMBER

COMMON

NAME

TYPE OF BOTANICAL
PLANT NAME

USAGE:

HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY

Matwu

Huilca

n Cacalia cordifolia L. til.

Mexico

Mescal Bean
Coral Bean
Colorines
Frijoles
Red Bean

j Sophora secundiflora (Ort.) Lag. ex DC.

Use of Mescal Bean goes far back into prehistory in the
Rio Grande basin, where they have had ritual uses for at
least 9,000 years.

The Arapaho and Iowa tribes in the United States
were using the beans as early as 1820.

At least a dozen tribes of Indians in northern Mexico
and southern Texas practiced a vision-seeking dance.

Nightshade

Scopolia carniolica Jacques

Probably used as an ingredient of witches’ salves and
ointments; used in Eastern Europe as a substitute for
Mandrake; also used as an intoxicating ingredient in
beer.

Nonda

1 -4^32*.

Boletus kumeus Heim; B. manicus Heim;
B. nigroviolaceus Heim; B. reayi Heim

New Guinea

Nutmeg

Mace

Myristica fragrans Houtt.

Known as “narcotic fruit” in ancient Indian writings.
Occasionally used as a surrogate for Hashish in

Egypt-

Unknown in classical Greece and Rome, Nutmeg was
introduced to Europe in the first century a. d. by the
Arabs, who employed it as a medicine.

Nutmeg poisoning was common in the Middle Ages,
and during the 1 9 th century in England and America.

Ololiuqui

Badoh

Xtabentum

(see also pages 1 70-1 75)

-«y

Turbina corymbosa (L.) Raf.
[= Rivea corymbosa]

The seeds of this Morning Glory, formerly known as
Rivea corymbosa, are valued as one of the major sacred
hallucinogens of numerous Indian groups in southern
Mexico. Their use goes back to early periods, and they
were important in Aztec ceremonies as an intoxicant
and as a magic potion with reputedly analgesic
properties.

Paguando
Borrachero
Totubjansush
Arbol de Campanilla

lochroma fuchsioides Miers

Used by the Indians of the Sibundoy Valley of southern
Colombia and the Kamsa of the southern Andes of
Colombia.

Peyote

Hikuli

Mescal Button

(see also pages 144-155)

Lophophora diffusa (Croizat) Bravo;
L. williamsii (Lem.) Coult.

Spanish chronicles described use of Peyote by the Az-
tec Indians. Lophophora is valued today by the Tarahu-
mara, Huichol, and other Mexican Indians as well as by
members of the Native American Church in the United
States and western Canada.

Peyotillo

Pelecyphora aselliformls Ehrenb.

There are suspicions that this round cactus may be
valued in Mexico as a “false Peyote.”

Pitallito

Hikuri

Echinocereus salmdyckianus Scheer;
E. triglochidiatus Engelm.

The Tarahumara Indians of Chihuahua consider both
species as “false Peyotes.”

Pituri

Pituri Bush
Poison Bush

Duboisia hopwoodii F. con Muell.

Pituri leaves have been used for at least 40,000 years in
Australian rituals and are used for both medicinal and
pleasurable purposes.

Piule

Rhynchosia longeracemosa Mart, et Gal.;

R. phaseoloides ; R. pyramidalis (Lam.) Urb.

The red/black beans of several species of Rhynchosia
may have been employed in ancient Mexico as a
hallucinogen.

Rape dos Indios

Maquira sclerophylla (Ducke) C. C. Berg

Indians of the Pariana region of the Brazilian Amazon
formerly used Maquira, but encroaching civilization has
ended this custom.

USAGE

CONTEXT AND PURPOSE

PREPARATION

CHEMICAL COMPONENTS
AND EFFECTS

Presumed aphrodisiac and cure for sterility.

The dried herb is smoked.

One alkaloid has been reported.

No evidence of hallucinogenic properties.

The arrival of the Peyote cult, centering on Lopho-
phora, a safer hallucinogen, led the natives to aban-
don the Red Bean Dance, which had made use of the
beans as an oracular, divinatory, and hallucinogenic
medium.

A drink was prepared from the red beans of
S. secundiflora.

The seeds contain the highly toxic alkaloid cytisine,
which pharmacologically belongs to the same group as
nicotine. Hallucinogenic activity is unknown from cyti-
sine, but the powerful intoxication may cause a kind of
delirium comparable to a visionary trance.

In high doses, respiratory failure may lead to death.

Used as an aphrodisiac and psychoactive love potion
in Lithuania and Latvia.

The roots are used as an ingredient in beer. The dried
herb can be smoked alone or mixed with other herbs.

The whole plant contains strong hallucinogenic tro-
panalkaloids, especially hyoscyamine and scopola-
mine. Also contains scopoletine.

Several species of Boletus are involved in the re-
ported “mushroom madness" of the Kuma.

The dried, ground fruit is eaten.

Active principles unknown.

The most notable use of Nutmeg is found in Western
society, especially among prisoners deprived of other
drugs.

At least one teaspoon is used when taken orally or
snuffed for narcotic purposes, although usually much
more is required to bring on full intoxication. Nutmeg is
on occasion added to the betel chew.

The main active ingredient of nutmeg’s essential oils is
myristicine; safrol and eugenol are also present.

In high doses extremely toxic and dangerous, the
components of Nutmeg oil so upset normal body func-
tions that they evoke a delirium comparable to halluci-
nations, usually accompanied by severe headache,
dizziness, nausea, etc.

At the present time the small round seeds are utilized
in divination and witchcraft by Chinantec, Mazatec,
Mixtec, Zapotec, and others and, as has recently
been stated, "today in almost all villages of Oaxaca
one finds seeds still serving the natives as an ever-
present help in time of trouble."

The seeds, which must be collected by the person who
is to be treated, are ground by a virgin on a metate,
water is added, and then the drink is filtered. The
patient drinks it at night in a quiet, secluded place.

Ergoline alkaloids were found to be the psychoactive
principles, lysergic acid amide and lysergic acid hydro-
xyethylamide, closely related to the potent hallucino-
gen LSD, being the most important constituents.

According to shamans, the aftereffects are so strong
that the plant is used for divination, prophecy, and di-
agnosis of disease only when other “medicines” are
unavailable, or for especially difficult cases.

The fresh bark is rasped from the stem and boiled with
an equal amount of leaves, usuallya handful. The re-
sulting tea, when cooled, is drunk with no admixture.
The dose is said to be one to three cupfuls of a strong
decoction over a three-hour period.

Although chemical investigation of this genus has not
been carried out, it belongs to the Nightshade family,
well recognized for its hallucinogenic effects.

The intoxication is not pleasant, having after effects
of several days.

Mythological and religious significance; healing cere-
monies.

In the United States, use of Peyote is a vision-quest
ritual with a combination of Christian and Native ele-
ments and high moral principles.

The cactus may be eaten raw, dried, or made into a
mash or a tea.

From 4 to 30 tops are consumed during the
ceremony.

Contains up to 30 alkaloids of the phenylethylamine
and tetrahydroisoquinoline type. The main constituent
responsible for the hallucinogenic activity is trimethox-
yphenylethylamine, named mescaline.

Hallucinations are characterized by colored visions.

The cactus is used in northern Mexico as Peyote
(Lophophora williamsil).

Cactus flesh is eaten fresh or dried.

Recent investigations have indicated the presence of
alkaloids.

The Tarahumara sing to Pitallito during collection and
say it has “high mental qualities.”

Cactus flesh is eaten fresh or dried.

A tryptamine derivative has been reported from
E. triglochidiatus.

Pituri has been of central importance in Australian
Aboriginal society as a substance for social enjoy-
ment, a shamanic magic drug, and a valuable good for
trade. Pituri is chewed for its narcotic effects, as a
stimulant to dreams and visions, and simply to be
enjoyed.

The fermented leaves are mixed with alkaline plant
ashes and other resins (such as Acacia resin) and
chewed.

The leaves contain various psychoactive alkaloids
(piturine, nicotine, nornicotine, anabasine, and others).
The roots also contain nornicotine and scopolamine.
The chewed leaves can act as a narcotic, stimulant, or
hallucinogen.

Hallucinogenic intoxication (?)

The seeds are referred to by Indians of Oaxaca by the
same name used for the hallucinogenic seeds of
Morning Glory (Turbina corymbosa).

Chemical studies of Rhynchosia are still indecisive. An
alkaloid with curare-like activity has been reported
from one species. Pharmacological experiments with
R. phaseoloides produced a kind of seminarcosis in
frogs.

The snuff was taken during tribal ceremonials.

The method of preparation from the dried fruit is ap-
parently remembered only by the very old.

No chemical studies have been carried out on
M. sclerophylla.

REF

NUMBER

COMMON

NAME

TYPE OF BOTANICAL
PLANT NAME

USAGE:

HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY

Reed Grass

Phalaris arundinacea L.

Although Reed Grass was familiar to writers of antiquity,
its psychoactive use is very recent.

Saguaro

Carnegiea gigantea (Engelm.) Britt, et Rose

Southwestern United States and Mexico. Although there
are apparently no ethnological reports of Saguaro as a
hallucinogen, the plant is an important medicine among
the Indians.

Sanango

Tabernaemonlana

H Tabernaemontana coffeoides Bojer ex DC.;

T. crassa Bentham; T. dichotoma Roxburgh;
T. pandacaqui Poir.

[= Ervatamia pandacaqui (Poir.) Pichon]

There are many varieties of the genus Tabernaemon-
tana in Africa and South America. Especially in Africa,
some varieties seem to have been used for a long time in
shamanic or traditional medicine practices.

San Pedro
Aguacolla
Giganton

(see also pages 166-169)

Trichocereus pachanoi Britt, et Rose
J [= Echinopsis pachanoi]

Used by the natives of South America, especially in the
Andes of Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia.

Screw Pine

] Pandanus sp.

New Guinea

Shang-la

Phytolacca acinosa Roxb.

China

Shanin

Petunia

Petunia violacea Lindl.

A recent report from highland Ecuador has indicated
that a species of Petunia is valued as a hallucinogen.

Shanshi

Corlaria thymifolia HBK. ex Willd.

Peasants in Ecuador.

Siberian Lion's Tail
Marijuanillo
Siberian Motherwort

Leonurus sibiricus L.

The Siberian Motherwort has been used medicinally
from the very beginning of Chinese medicine. Since the
plant was transplanted to the Americas, it has been used
as a substitute for Marijuana.

Sinicuichi

Heimia sallcifolia (HBK) Link et Otto

Although all three species of Heimia are important in
Mexican folk medicine, mainly H. salicifolia has been
valued for its hallucinogenic properties.

Straw Flower

Helichrysum foetidum (L.) Moench;
H. stenopterum DC.

Zululand, South Africa.

Sweet Flag
Flag Root
Sweet Calomel
Calamus

Acorus calamus L.

Cree Indians of northwest Canada.

Syrian Rue

Peganum harmala L.

P. harmala is valued today from Asia Minor across to
India with extraordinary esteem, suggesting former
religious use as a hallucinogen.

Taglli n

Hierba Loca 1

Huedhued

Pernettya furens (Hook, ex DC.) Klotzch;
P. parvifolia Bentham

P. furens is called Hierba Loca in Chile (“maddening
plant”), while P. parvifolia is known as Taglli in Ecuador.

Taique L

Borrachero

Latuy

Desfontainia spinosa R. et P.

Reported as a hallucinogen from Chile (Taique) and
southern Colombia ( Borrachero = “intoxicant").

USAGE'

CONTEXT AND PURPOSE

PREPARATION

CHEMICAL COMPONENTS
AND EFFECTS

In connection with research on the so-called Aya-
huasca analogs, a species of Reed Grass has been
discovered that has a high DMT content and can be
used psychoactively.

An extract is made from the leaves. In combination with
Peganum harmala, it has visionary effects, and can be
drunk as a substitute for Ayahuasca.

This grass contains many indole alkaloids, especially
N,N-DMT,5-MeO-DMT,MMT and [sometimes] gramine.
DMT and 5-MeO-DMT have very strong psychedelic
effects, while gramine is very toxic.

The Seri Indians of Sonora consider Saguaro effica-
cious against rheumatism.

The fruit of Carnegiea is valued as food and in wine-
making.

The plant contains pharmacologically active alkaloids
capable of psychoactivity. Carnegine, 5-hydroxycarne-
gine, and norcarnegine, plus trace amounts of 3-meth-
oxytyramine and the new alkaloid arizonine (a tetrahy-
droquinoline base), have been isolated.

Tabernaemontana crassa is used in West Africa as a
narcotic in traditional medicine. T. dichotoma is used
for its psychoactive effects in India and Sri Lanka.

The seeds of T. dichotoma are used as a hallucinogen.
Unfortunately, very little is known about this interesting
genus.

Most varieties contain ibogaine-like alkaloids (such as
voacangine), which have very strong hallucinogenic
and vision-inducing effects.

Hallucinogenic intoxication.

The use of T. pachanoi appears to be primarily for
divination, diagnosis of disease, and to make oneself
owner of another’s identity.

Short pieces of the stem are sliced and boiled in water
for several hours. Several other plants, Brugmansia,
Pernettya, and Lycopodium, for example, are some-
times added.

T. pachanoi is rich in mescaline: 2% of dried material
(or 0.12% of fresh material).

A species of Pandanus is said to be used for halluci-
nogenic purposes, while others are known to be va-
lued in folk medicine, in magic, and for ceremonial
purposes.

It has recently been reported that natives of New
Guinea employ the fruit of a species of Pandanus.

Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) has been detected in an al-
kaloid extract. Eating substantial amounts of the nuts is
said to cause an “outbreak of irrational behavior”
known as Karuka madness among local people.

Shang-la is a well-known medicinal plant in China. It
was reportedly used by sorcerers, who valued its hal-
lucinogenic effects.

The flowers and roots enter Chinese medicine: the for-
mer for treating apoplexy, the latter for external use
only.

P. acinosa has a high concentration of saponines.

The toxicity and hallucinogenic effects of Shang-li
are commonly mentioned in Chinese herbals.

Taken by the Indians of Ecuador to induce a sensation
of flight.

The dried herb is smoked.

Phytochemical studies of Petunia are lacking.
The plant is said to induce a feeling of flying.

Recent reports suggest that the fruit may purposefully
be eaten to induce intoxication.

The fruit is eaten.

The chemistry is still poorly known.

Levitation or sensations of soaring through the air.

This herb is smoked in Brazil and Chiapas as a sub-
stitute for Cannabis.

The flowering herb is dried and smoked alone or mixed
with other plants. One to 2g of the dried plant is an
effective dose.

Contains alkaloids, flavonglycosides, diterpenes, and
an essential oil. The psychoactive effects may be attri-
butable to the diterpenes (leosibiricine, leosibirine, and
isoleosibirine).

Mexican natives report that Sinicuichi possesses
supernatural virtues, but the plant does not appear to
be taken ritually or ceremonially.

Some natives assert that it helps them clearly to
recall happenings of long ago — even prenatal events.

In the Mexican highlands the leaves of H. salicifolia are
slightly wilted, crushed in water, and then allowed to
ferment into an intoxicating drink.

Alkaloids of the quinolizidine type have been isolated,
among them cryogenine (vertine), to which the psy-
chotropic activity may be attributed.

The beverage induces giddiness, a darkening of the
surroundings, shrinkage of the world around, and a
pleasant drowsiness. Auditory hallucinations may oc-
cur with voices and distorted sounds that seem to
come from far away.

These herbs are used by native doctors “for inhaling to
induce trances.”

The dried herb is smoked.

Coumarins and diterpenes are reported, but no consti-
tuents with hallucinogenic properties have been
isolated.

Antifatigue medicine; also used against toothache,
headache, and asthma.

Hallucinogenic intoxication (uncertain)

Chewing of the rootstalk.

The active principles are a-asarone and p-asarone.

In large doses, visual hallucinations and other ef-
fects similar to those of LSD may occur.

Syrian Rue has many uses in folk medicine, as well as
being valued as an aphrodisiac. Often used as
incense.

The dried seeds constitute the Indian drug Harmal.

The plant possesses undoubted hallucinogenic princi-
ples: p-carboline alkaloids— harmine, harmaline, tetra-
hydroharmine, and related bases known to occur in at
least eight families of higher plants. These constituents
are found in the seeds.

Known to be employed as a hallucinogen, it has been
suggested that Pernettya has played a role in magico-
religious ceremonies in South America — a still unpro-
ven claim.

Eating of the fruit.

The chemistry of the toxic fruits of both P. furens and
P. parvifolia, which cause mental confusion and even
insanity, is not yet elucidated.

Medicine men of the Kamsa tribe drink a tea from the
leaves for the purpose of diagnosing disease or when
they “want to dream”

Tea made from the leaves or fruit.

Nothing is as yet known of the chemistry of D. spinosa.
Visions are experienced and some of the medicine
men assert that they temporarily “go crazy" under its
influence.

REF COMMON TYPE OF BOTANICAL USAGE:

NUMBER NAME PLANT NAME HISTORYAND ETHNOGRAPHY

Helicostylis pedunculata Benoist; In the Guianas, Takini is a sacred tree.

H. tomentosa (P. et E.) Macbride

38 Takini fg

Teonanacatl

Tamil

Hongo de San Isidro

She-to

To-shka

(see also pages 1 56-1 63)

Thorn Apple
Jimsonweed

(see also pages 1 06-1 1 1 )

Conocybe siligineoides Heim:

Panaeolus sphinctrinus (Fr.) Quelet;

Psilocybe acutissima Heim;

P. aztecorum Heim; P. caerulescens Murr.;

P. caerulescens Murr. var. albida Heim;

P. caerulescens Murr. var. mazatecorum Heim;
P. caerulescens Murr. var. nigripes Heim;

P caerulescens Murr. var. ombrophila Heim;

P mexicana Heim; P. mixaeensis Heim;

P semperviva Heim et Cailleux;

P. wasson/V Heim;

P. yungensis Singer; P. zapotecorum Heim;
Psilocybe cubensis Earle

Datura stramonium L.

Mushroom worship seems to be rooted in centuries of
native Indian tradition of Middle America.

The Aztec Indians called the sacred mushrooms Teo-
nanacatl; the Mazatec and Chinantec in northeastern
Oaxaca, Mexico, refer to Panaeolus sphinctrinus as
T-ha-na-sa, To-shka (“intoxicating mushroom’’), and
She-to (“pasture mushrooms"). While in Oaxaca Psilo-
cybe cubensis is named Hongo de San Isidro, in the
Mazatec language it is called Di-shi-tjo-le-rra-ja (“divine
mushroom of manure").

Reportedly employed by the Algonquin and others.

Ingredient of the witches’ brews of medieval Europe.
Used in both the Old and New World, the geographic
origin of Jimsonweed is uncertain.

Toloache

Toloatzin

(see also pages 106-1 11)

Datura innoxia Mill.;

D. discolor Bernh. ex Tromms.;
D. kymatocarpa A. S. Barclay;
D. pruinosa Greenm.;

D. quercifolia HBK;

D. reburra A. S. Barclay;

D. stramonium L.;

D. wrightii Regel.

Known also as D. meteloides, D. innoxia is used in Mex-
ico and the American Southwest.

Tupa

Tabaco del Diablo

Lobelia tupa L.

Recognizing L. tupa as toxic, the Mapuche Indians of
Chile value the leaves for their intoxicating properties.
Other Andean Indians take it as an emetic and
purgative.

Turkestan Mint

*9>i

Lagochilus inebrians Bunge

The Tajik, Tatar, Turkoman, and Uzbek tribesman on the
dry steppes of Turkestan have for centuries prepared a
tea made from L. inebrians.

Voacanga

Voacanga africana Stapf;

V. bracteata Stapf;

V. dregei E. Mey. V. grandiflora (Miq.) Rolfe.

In Africa, a number of varieties of the genus Voacanga
have been used as hallucinogens, aphrodisiacs, and
medicines.

Wichuriki
Hikuli Rosapara
Hikuri

Peyote de San Pedro
Mammillaria

Mammillaria craigii Lindsay;
M. grahamii Engelm.;

M. senilis (Lodd.) Weber

The Tarahumara Indians of Mexico value several spe-
cies of Mammillaria among the most important “false
Peyotes."

Wood Rose
Hawaiian Wood Rose

Argyreia nervosa (Burman f.) Bojer

The Wood Rose has been used since ancient times in
Ayurvedic medicine. A traditional use as a hallucinogen

has been discovered in Nepal.

Yauhtli

Tagetes lucida Cav.

Tagetes is used by the Huichol of Mexico and valued
ceremonially for its hallucinatory effects.

Yiin-Shih

Caesalpinia sepiaria Roxb.

[= C. decapetala (Roth) Alston]

China; used medicinally in Tibet and Nepai.

Zacatechichi
Thle-Pelakano
Aztec Dream Grass

Calea zacatechichi Schlecht.

Seems to be used only by the Chontal Indians of Oaxa-
ca, even though it ranges from Mexico to Costa Rica.

USAGE

CONTEXT AND PURPOSE

PREPARATION

CHEMICAL COMPONENTS
AND EFFECTS

Little is known of the use.

A mildly poisonous intoxicant is prepared from the red
“sap” of the bark.

No specific hallucinogenic constituents have been
identified. Extracts from the inner bark of both species
have pharmacologically been shown to elicit depres-
sant effects similar to those produced by Marijuana.

Mythological and sacramental use.

Employed today in divination and healing ceremo-
nies.

Contacts with Christianity or modern ideas do not
seem to have influenced the deep spirit of reverence
characteristic of the mushroom ritual.

It has been suggested that Psilocybe species may
be employed for hallucinogenic inebriation also by the
Yurimagua Indians of Amazonian Peru.

Personal preference, purpose of use, and seasonal
availability determine the kinds of mushrooms used by
different shamans. P mexicana, one of the most widely
used, may perhaps be considered the most typical
sacred mushroom.

Anywhere from 2 to 30 mushrooms (depending on
the type used) are eaten during a typical ceremony.
They may be consumed either fresh or ground and
made into an infusion.

The indolic alkaloids psilocybine and psilocineare the
main hallucinogenic principles of the sacred mush-
rooms. The content varies from species to species be-
tween 0.2 and 0.6% of psilocybine and small amounts
of psilocine in dried mushroom material. The mush-
rooms cause both visual and auditory hallucinations,
with the dreamlike state becoming reality.

Initiation rites.

Ingredient of the witches’ brews.

The roots of the Thorn Apple may have been used in
the hallucinogenic Algonquin drink wysoccan.

See Toloache.

D. innoxia was employed medicinally and as a sacred
hallucinogen by the Aztec and other Indians. TheZuni
Indians value the plant as an analgesic and as a
poultice to cure wounds and bruises. Toloache is said
to be the exclusive property of the rain priests. Valued
in initiation rituals.

The Tarahumara add D. innoxia to their maize beer and
use the roots, seeds, and leaves.

The Zuni chew the roots and put powder prepared
from them into the eyes.

Among the Yokut Indians, the seeds are said to be
taken only once during a man’s lifetime.

All species of the genus Datura are chemically similar
with the active principles tropane alkaloids, especially
hyoscyamine and scopolamine, the latter being the
main component.

Hallucinogenic intoxication; folk medicine.

Smoking of the leaves and taken internally.

Tupa leaves contain the piperidine alkaloid lobeline, a
respiratory stimulant, as well as the diketo- and dihy-
droxy-derivatives lobelamidineand nor-lobelamidine,
which are not known to.be hallucinogenic.

Hallucinogenic intoxication.

The leaves are toasted to produce a tea. Drying and
storage increases the aromatic fragrance. Stems,
fruiting tops, and flowers may be added.

The presence of a crystalline compound called lago-
chiline— a diterpene of the grindelian type— is known.
This compound is not known to be hallucinogenic.

The seeds of various Voacanga varieties are taken by
African magic men to create visual hallucinations.

The seeds or the bark of various Voacanga varieties
can be taken.

Many varieties of Voacanga contain psychoactive in-
dole alkaloids, especially voacangine and voccamine,
both of which are chemically related to ibogaine.

Used as a visual hallucinogen.

M. grahamii is taken by shamans in special cere-
monies.

M. craigii'is split open, sometimes roasted, and the
central tissue is used. The top of the plant, divested of
its spines, is the most powerful part; the fruit and upper
part of M. grahamii are said to have similar effects.

A/-methyl-3, 4-di-methoxyphenylethylamine has been
isolated from M. heyderii, a close relative to M. craigii.

Deep sleep, during which a person is said to travel
great distances, and brilliant colors characterize the
intoxication.

In Ayurvedic medicine, Wood Rose is used as a tonic
and as an aphrodisiac, and it is also used to increase
intelligence and to slow down the aging process. To-
day, the seeds are of interest in Western society for
their psychoactive properties.

The seeds are ground and mixed with water. Four to 8
seeds (approximately 2 g) are sufficient for a medium
psychoactive dose.

The seeds contain 0.3% ergot alkaloids (especially
chanoclavin-l, also ergine (LSA), ergonovine, and iso-
lysergic acid amide.

Used to induce or enhance visions.

T. lucida is occasionally smoked alone but is some-
times mixed with tobacco (Nicotiana rustica).

No alkaloids have been isolated from Tagetes, but
the genus is rich in essential oils and thiophene
derivatives.

If consumed over a long period, the flowers are said to
induce levitation and “communication with the spirits."
Folk medicine.

Roots, flowers, and seeds.

An unknown alkaloid has been reported.

The earliest Chinese herbal stated: the “flowers en-
able one to see spirits and cause one to stagger
madly.”

Used in folk medicine, especially as an aperitif, a feb-
rifuge, and an astringent for treating diarrhea. The
Chontal take Zacatechichi to clarify the senses.

Tea is made of the crushed dried leaves and used as a
hallucinogen. After drinking Zacatechichi, the Indians
recline quietly to smoke a cigarette of the dried leaves.

There is an as yet unidentified alkaloid. Also contains
sesquiterpene-lactone.

Restful and drowsy condition during which the In-
dians say that one’s own heart and pulse can be felt.

TAB JH

THE MOST IMPORTANT
HALLUCINOGENIC PLANTS

Of the ninety-seven hallucinogens in
the lexicon, the most important are dis-
cussed in detail in the ensuing chapters.
Several reasons underlie our selection.
Most of these plants are or have been
so culturally and materially important
in aboriginal societies that they cannot
be overlooked. A few are of special bo-
tanical or chemical interest. Others are
of great antiquity. Still others have re-
cently been discovered or identified.
And the use of one has spread through-
out the modern world and is now of vi-
tal importance.

Amanita muscaria (Fly Agaric), one
of the oldest hallucinogens, is employed
in both hemispheres and is biochemi-
cally significant, since its active princi-
ple is atypically excreted unmetabo-
lized.

The use of Peyote (Lophophora wil-
liamsu), of great antiquity, has now
spread from its original Mexican home-
land to Texas in the United States,
where it is the basis of a new Indian re-
ligion. Its main psychoactive alkaloid,
mescaline, is utilized in psychiatry.

The religious use of mushrooms —
known as Teonanacatl — in Mexico and
Guatemala is ancient and was firmly es-
tablished among the Aztec Indians at the
time of the Conquest. Their psychoac-
tive constituents are novel structures
not known in any other plants.

Of similar importance, and as an-
cient, are the seeds of several Morning
Glories. Their use has persisted until
the present in southern Mexico. Of
great chemo-taxonomic interest, their
psychoactive constituents are found on-
ly in an unrelated group of fungi, con-
taining Ergot, which may have been
hallucinogenically important in ancient
Greece.

Deadly Nightshade, Henbane, and
Mandrake were the main ingredients of
the witches’ brews of medieval Europe,
where they long exerted a great cultural
and historical influence.

In both hemispheres, Datura played
highly significant roles in native cul-
tures. The related Brugmansia is still

employed as one of the principal hallu-
cinogens in South America.

Archaeology indicates that the South
American cactus Trichocereus pachanoi
has a long history, although it has only
recently been identified as a principal
hallucinogen of the central Andes.

The most significant African halluci-
nogen is Iboga, employed in initiation
rituals and to communicate with ances-
tors. Spreading today in Gabon and the
Congo, it is a unifying culture trait de-
terring the intrusion of foreign customs
from Western society.

The intoxicating drink prepared from
Banisteriopsis holds a place of cultural
primacy throughout the western Ama-
zon. Known in Peru as Ayahuasca
(“vine of the soul”), it allows the soul to
leave the body and wander freely, com-
municating with the spirit world. Its
psychoactive principles are (3-carbolines
and tryptamines.

Three snuffs are of importance in cer-
tain South American cultures. One, in
the western Amazon, is prepared from
a resin like liquid produced in the bark
of several species of Virola. The others,
made from the beans of a species of
Anadenanthera and used in the Orino-
co, adjacent Amazon, and Argentina,
was formerly also valued in the West In-
dies. Both snuffs play significant roles in
the life of many Indian groups and are
of chemical interest, since their active
principles are tryptamines.

Pituri is the most important psycho-
active substance in Australia. Cannabis,
an ancient Asiatic hallucinogen, is now
used in nearly all parts of the world. An
understanding of its roles in primitive
societies may help elucidate its popular-
ity in Western culture. Some of the fifty
chemical structures found in Cannabis
are medically promising.

A long chapter could well be written
about any of the more than ninety spe-
cies which have been enumerated in the
plant lexicon. But in the interest of
space, the following have been treated
in greater detail for the reasons out-
lined.

The Greek lecythus is a sacramental
vessel filled with fragrant oils and placed
next to a death bed or grave. On this
lecythus (450-425 b. c.), a crowned
Triptolemus holds the Eleusinian grain, a
grass probably infected with Ergot; while
Demeter or Persephone pours a sacred
libation, prepared presumably from the
infected grain. The two figures are sepa-
rated by the staff of Triptolemus and uni-
ted into one field by the grain and poured
libation.

Page 80: Mandrake (Mandragora offici-
narum), “the man-like plant,” has a
complex history of usage. In Europe, it
was employed as a stupefacient in
addition to being one of the strongest
ingredients added to the brews con-
cocted by witches of the Middle Ages.
The root of the Mandrake was likened to
the form of a man or woman, and ac-
cording to superstition, if the plant were
pulled from the earth, its shrieks could
drive the collectors mad. This image of
Mandragora was engraved by the well-
known artist Matthaus Merian in the
early eighteenth century.

3 MAINSTAY OF THE HEAVENS

(The number refers to the “Plant Lexi-
con"; the common name refers to the
reference chart “Overview of Plant
Use")

Page 83 top: Cliff drawing of a shaman
in the Altai mountains of Asia.

Page 83 right: Fly Agaric (Amanita
muscaria) is found around the world and
is associated nearly everywhere with
fairy worlds, alternative realities, and
shamanic practices.

Soma, the god-narcotic of ancient India,
attained an exalted place in magico-
religious ceremonies of the Aryans,
who 3,500 years ago swept down from
the north into the Indus Valley, bringing
with them the cult of Soma. These early
invaders of India worshiped the holy in-
ebriant and drank an extract of it in their
most sacred rites. Whereas most halluci-
nogenic plants were considered merely
as sacred mediators, Soma became a god
in its own right. An ancient Indian tra-
dition recorded in the Rig- Veda asserts
that “Parjanya, the god of thunder, was
the father of Soma” (Indra).

“Enter into the heart of Indra, receptacle

Siberian shamans use elaborate sym-
bolic costumes and decorated drums in
their ceremonies. The left figure is a
shaman from Krasnojarsk District; at
right, the Kamtchatka District.

of Soma, like rivers into the ocean, thou
who pleasest Mitra, Varuna, Vaya,
mainstay of heaven! . . . Father of the
gods, progenitor of the moving force,
mainstay of the sky, foundation of the
earth.”

Of the more than 1 ,000 holy hymns in
the Rig-Veda, 120 are devoted exclu-
sively to Soma, and references to this ve-
getal sacrament run through many of the
other hymns. The cult was suppressed,
and the original holy plant was forgot-
ten; other plant surrogates — with little

or no psychoactivity — were substituted.
Yet the identity of Soma remained one
of the enigmas of ethnobotany for two
thousand years. Only in 1968 did the in-
terdisciplinary research of Gordon Was-
son provide persuasive evidence that the
sacred narcotic was a mushroom, Ama-
nita muscaria, the Fly Agaric. Amanita
muscaria may be the oldest of the hallu-
cinogens and perhaps was once the most
widely used.

The curious hallucinogenic use of
Amanita muscaria has been documen-
ted since 1730. It was then that a Swed-
ish military officer, a prisoner of war in
Siberia for twelve years, reported that
primitive tribesmen there employed the
Fly Agaric as a shamanistic inebriant.
The custom persisted among scattered
groups of Finno-Ugrian peoples of Si-
beria. Traditions suggest that other
groups in this vast northern region also
used the mushroom.

A Koryak legend tells us that the cul-
ture hero. Big Raven, caught a whale
but was unable to put such a heavy ani-
mal back into the sea. The god Vahiyi-
nin (Existence) told him to eat wapaq
spirits to get the strength that he
needed. Vahiyinin spat upon the earth,
and little white plants — the wapaq spir-
its — appeared; they had red hats and
Vahiyinin’s spittle congealed as white
flecks. When he had eaten wapaq. Big
Raven became exceedingly strong, and
he pleaded: “O wapaq, grow forever on
earth.” Whereupon he commanded his
people to learn what wapaq could teach
them. Wapaq is the Fly Agaric, a gift di-
rectly from Vahiyinin.

These Siberian mushroom users had
no other intoxicants, until the Russians
introduced alcohol. They dried the
mushrooms in the sun and ingested
them either alone or as an extract in
water, reindeer milk, or the juice of sev-
eral sweet plants. When the mushroom
was swallowed as a solid, it was first
moistened in the mouth, or a woman
rolled it in her mouth into a moistened
pellet for the men to swallow. The
ceremonial use of the Fly Agaric de-
veloped a ritualistic practice of urine-
drinking, since these tribesmen learned

that the psychoactive principles of the
mushroom pass through the body
unmetabolized, or in the form of still
active metabolites — most unusual for
hallucinogenic compounds in plants.
An early account, referring to the Kor-
yak, reported that “they pour water on
some of the mushrooms and boil them.
They then drink the liquor, which intox-
icates them; the poorer sort, who cannot
afford to lay in a store of the mush-
rooms, post themselves on these occa-
sions round the huts of the rich and
watch the opportunity of the guests
coming down to make water and then
hold a wooden bowl to receive the urine,
which they drink off greedily, as having
still some virtue of the mushroom in it,
and by this way, they also get drunk.”

The Rig-Veda definitely refers to urine-
drinking in the Soma ritual: “The swol-
len men piss the flowing Soma. The
lords, with full bladders, piss Soma
quick with movement.” The priests im-
personating Indra and Vayu, having
drunk Soma in milk, urinate Soma. In
the Vedic poems, urine is not offensive
but is an ennobling metaphor to describe
rain: the blessings of rain are likened to
showers of urine, and the clouds fertilize
the earth with their urine.

A traveler among the Koryak in the
early twentieth century offered one of
the few descriptions of intoxication in
aboriginal use of the mushroom. He
wrote that the “Fly Agaric produces in-
toxication, hallucinations, and delirium.
Light forms of intoxication are accom-
panied by a certain degree of animation
and some spontaneity of movements.
Many shamans, previous to their se-
ances, eat Fly Agaric to get into ecstatic
states . . . Under strong intoxication, the
senses become deranged, surrounding
objects appear either very large or very
small, hallucinations set in, spontaneous
movements and convulsions. So far as I
could observe, attacks of great anima-
tion alternate with moments of deep de-
pression. The person intoxicated by Fly
Agaric sits quietly rocking from side to
side, even taking part in conversations
with his family. Suddenly, his eyes dilate,
he begins to gesticulate convulsively,

The Chemistry of Fiy Agaric

The active principle of Amanita muscaria was thought once, a century ago, to
have been muscarine when Schmiedeberg and Koppe isolated this sub-
stance. This belief has been proved erroneous. Recently Eugster in Switzer-
land and Takemoto in Japan isolated ibotenic acid and the alkaloid muscimole
as being responsible for the Fly Agaric’s psychotropic effects. The mushroom
is taken usually dried. The drying process induces the chemical transforma-
tion of ibotenic acid to muscimole, the most active constituent.

Above left: To bring good luck into the
coming year, fireworks in the shape of
Fly Agaric are set off on New Year's Eve.

Above right: The results of smoking Fly
Agaric are depicted in the German chil-
dren’s book Meckiand the Dwarves.

Below right: It is possible that Fly Agaric
is identical to the Vedic wonder-drug
Soma. Today Ephedra (Ephedra ger-
ardiana) is called somalata, “soma
plant.” In Nepal Ephedra is not halluci-
nogenic or psychedelic but is a very
Strong stimulant.

converses with persons whom he imagi-
nes he sees, sings and dances. Then an
interval of rest sets in again.”

The Fly Agaric was apparently em-
ployed hallucinogenically in Mesoa-
merica. It occurs naturally in highland
areas in southern Mexico and Guatema-
la. The Maya of highland Guatemala,
for example, recognize Amanita mus -
cana as having special properties, for
they call it Kakulja-ikox (“lightning
mushroom”), relating it to one of the
gods, Raj aw Kakulja or Lord of Light-
ning. It is this god who directs the oper-
ating of chacs, dwarf rain-bringers now
usually known by their Christian desig-
nation, angelitos. The Quiche name of
the Amanita muscaria, Kaqulja, refers
to its legendary origin, whereas the term
Itzelo-cox refers to its sacred power as
"evil or diabolical mushroom.” Thun-
der and lightning have widely and
anciently been associated with mush-
rooms, in both hemispheres, especially
with Amanita muscaria. “In any event,
the Quiche-Maya . . . are evidently well
aware the Amanita muscaria is no
ordinary mushroom but relates to the
supernatural.”

The first settlers of the Americas
came from Asia, slowly crossing the

region of the Bering Strait. Anthropol-
ogists have found many Asia-related or
remnant culture traits that persist in the
Americas. Recent discoveries have un-
covered vestiges of the magico-reli-
gious importance of the Fly Agaric that
have indeed survived in North Ameri-
can cultures. Indications of undoubted

hallucinogenic use of the Fly Agaric
have been discovered among the Do-
grib Athabascan peoples, who live on
the Mackenzie Mountain range in
northwestern Canada. Here Amanita
muscana is employed as a sacrament in
shamanism. A young neophyte repor-
ted that whatever the shaman had done

to him, “he had snatched me. I had no
volition, I had no power of my own. I
didn’t eat, didn’t sleep, I didn’t think —
I wasn’t in my body any longer.” After
a later seance, he wrote: “Cleansed and
ripe for vision, I rise, a bursting ball of
seeds in space ... I have sung the note
that shatters structure. And the note
that shatters chaos, and been bloody
. . . I have been with the dead and at-
tempted the labyrinth.” His first mush-
room experience represented dismem-
berment; his second, meeting with the
spirit.

More recently, the religious use of
Amanita muscana as a sacred hallucino-
gen has been discovered in an ancient an-
nual ceremony practiced by the Ojibwa
Indians or Ahnishinaubeg who live on
Lake Superior in Michigan. The mush-
room is known in the Ojibwa language
as Oshtimisk Wajashkwedo (“Red-top
mushroom”).

Above right: The Spirit of the Fly Agaric
in Japan is the long-nosed, red-faced
Tengu. Whoever eats Beni-Tengu-Dake
(Red Tengu mushroom) will encounter
the lively entity.

Below left: The myth of Soma still lives
on. Here it is the name of a bar in a
luxury hotel in Delhi,

8 S2S?«— THE HEXING herbs

l( |a hyoscyamusalbus
^ Yellow Henbane

HYOSCYAMUS NIGER
~ ! Black Henbane

MANDRAGORA
^ Mandrake

Above left: The yellow blossom of the
rare variety of Atropa belladonna var.
lutea. The yellow Deadly Nightshade
is regarded as particularly potent for
magic and witchcraft.

■Above right: The bell-shaped flowers of
the Deadly Nightshade clearly show its
membership in the Nightshade family.

Page 87 above left: The flowers of the
Mandrake (Mandragora officinarum)
are rarely seen, as they bloom very
briefly and then quickly vanish.

Page 87 above right: The flowers of the
Black Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger)
have a characteristic coloring and an
unforgettable pattern on the petals. In
earlier times, it was thought to be the
eye of the devil.

Since antiquity several members of the
Nightshade family have been asso-
ciated with witchcraft in Europe. These
plants enable witches to perform feats
of occult wonder and prophecy, to hex
through hallucinogenic communication
with the supernatural and transport
themselves to far-off places for the
practice of their nefarious skills. These
inebriating plants were mainly Hen-
bane, Hyoscyamus albus and H. mger;
Belladonna, Atropa belladonna; and
Mandrake, Mandragora officinarum.
All four species have long histories of
use as hallucinogens and magic plants
connected with sorcery, witchcraft,
and superstition. The extraordinary re-
putation of these plants is due primar-
ily to the bizarre psychoactivity that
they possess. Their similarity in effects
is the result of similarity in chemical
constitution.

These four solanaceous plants contain
relatively high concentrations of tropane
alkaloids, primarily atropine, hyoscya-
mme, and scopolamine; other bases are
found in trace amounts. It is apparently
scopolamine, not atropine or hyoscya-
mine, that produces the hallucinogenic
effects. It induces an intoxication fol-

lowed by narcosis in which hallucina-
tions occur during the transition state
between consciousness and sleep.

Atropine has served chemists as a
model for the synthesis of several hallu-
cinogenic compounds. Their effects —
and those of scopolamine — differ from
those of the usual natural hallucinogens:
they are extremely toxic; and the user
remembers nothing experienced during
the intoxication, losing all sense of rea-
lity and falling into a deep sleep like an
alcoholic delirium.

Hyoscyamus has been known and
feared from earliest classical periods,
when it was recognized that there were
several kinds and that the black variety
was the most potent, capable of causing
insanity. The ancient Egyptians recor-
ded their knowledge of Henbane in the
Ebers Papyrus, written in 1500 b.C.
Homer described magic drinks with ef-
fects indicative of Henbane as a major
ingredient. In ancient Greece it served
as a poison, to mimic insanity, and to
enable man to prophesy. It has been
suggested that the priestesses at the
Oracle of Delphi made their prophetic
utterances while intoxicated with the
smoke from Henbane seeds. In the

The Chemistry of Deadly Nightshade, Henbane, and Mandrake

Thfe three solanaceous plants Atropa, Hyoscyamus, and Mandragora contain
the same active principles: primarily the alkaloids hyoscyamine, atropine, and
scopolamine. The difference is only one of relative concentration. Belladonna
contains little scopolamine, but this alkaloid is the main component of Man-
drake and especially of Henbane.

The alkaloids are found in the entire plant, with the highest concentration in
the seeds and roots. The hallucinogenic effects are due essentially to scopo-
lamine. Atropine and hyosyamine are less active under these circumstances.

thirteenth century, Bishop Albcrtus the
Great reported that Henbane was em-
ployed by necromancers to conjure up
demons.

From earliest times, the painkilling
properties of Henbane have been recog-
nized, and it has been employed to re-
lieve the suffering of those sentenced to
torture and death. Its great advantage
lies in its ability not only to allay pain
but also to induce a state of complete
oblivion.

Henbane is best known as an ingredi-
ent of the so-called “witch’s salve.”

When young people were to be in-
ducted into membership in groups dedi-
cated to witchcraft, for example, they
were often given a drink of Henbane so
that they could easily be persuaded to
engage in the sabbat rituals preparatory
to the acceptance officially of a place in.
witchcraft circles.

Those experiencing intoxication with
Henbane feel a pressure in the head, a
sensation as if someone were closing the
eyelids by force; sight becomes unclear,
objects are distorted in shape, and the
most unusual visual hallucinations are
induced. Gustatory and olfactory hal-
lucinations frequently accompany the

Left: According to this illustration from
the Juliana Codex, the Greek herbalist
Dioscorides received the Mandrake
plant from Heuresis, goddess of discov-
ery, illustrating the belief that this medi-
cine was a plant of the gods.

AIOCKOYP1AHC

“The Mandrake is the ‘Tree of Knowledge’
and the burning love ignited by its pleasure
is the origin of the human race.”

— Hugo Rahner

Greek Myths in Christian Meaning (1957)

/Above: The ancient goddess of witches,
Hecate, lords over the psychoactive and
magical herbs, particularly those in the
Nightshade family. In this colored print
by William Blake, she is depicted with
her shamanic animals.

Page 89 below right: The design for the
cover of a book about medicinal plants
depicts the anthropomorphic Mandrake.

intoxication. Eventually sleep, disturbed
by dreams and hallucinations, ends the
inebriation.

Other species of Hyoscyamns have si-
milar properties and are occasionally
used in similar ways. Indian Henbane
or Egyptian Henbane, or H. muticus,
occurring from the deserts of Egypt east
to Afghanistan and India, is employed
in India as an intoxicant, the dried leaves
being smoked. The Bedouins particu-
larly employ this intoxicant to become
drunk, and in some parts of Asia and
Africa it is smoked with Cannabis as an
inebriant.

Belladonna or Deadly Nightshade is
native to Europe but is now sponta-
neous as an escape from cultivation in
the United States and India. Its generic
name, Atropa, comes from the Greek

Fate Atropos, the inflexible one who
cuts the thread of life. The specific
epithet, meaning “beautiful lady,” re-
calls the use of sap of the plant to dilate
the pupils of the eyes among the fine la-
dies of Italy who believed that the drea-
my, intoxicated stare thus produced was
the height of fetching beauty. Many ver-
nacular names of the plant refer to its
intoxicating properties: Sorcerer’s Cher-
ry, Witch’s Berry, Devil’s Herb, Mur-
derer’s Berry, Dwaleberry ( dwale in
English deriving from the Scandinavian
root meaning “trance”).

The maenads of the orgies of Diony-
sus in Greek mythology dilated their
eyes and threw themselves into the arms
of male worshipers of this god or, with
“flaming eyes,” they fell upon men to
tear them apart and eat them. The wine

of Bacchanals was possibly adulterated
with juice of the Nightshade. Another
belief from classical times maintained
that Roman priests drank Belladonna
before their supplications to the god-
dess of war for victory.

It was during the early Modern period,
however, that Belladonna assumed its
greatest importance in witchcraft and
magic. It was one of the primary ingredi-
ents of the brews and ointments em-
ployed by witches and sorcerers. One
such potent mixture, containing Bella-
donna, Henbane, Mandrake, and the fat
of a stillborn child, was rubbed over the
skin or inserted into the vagina for ab-
sorption. The familiar witch’s broom-
stick goes far back in European magic
beliefs. An investigation into witchcraft
in 1324 reported that “in rifleing the

Left: The magical conjuration of the
Mandrake is a durable theme in Eur-
opean literature and art history. Here
is a scene from a modern comic,
Caza.

Below right: “Witches” persecuted
during the Inquisition were often ac-
cused of using hallucinogenic plants of
the Nightshade family, in particular
Henbane and Mandrake. For this
many were tortured, murdered, and
burned.

felte

Top: Amphibians, especially frogs
(which often produce poisons in their
bodies), have always been connected
with witchcraft and magic in the Old as
well as the New World. These animals
were occasionally added to potent
witches’ brews in Europe. They have
also figured significantly in certain New
World cultures in connection with hallu-
cinogenic activities.

Above left: The delightfully scented fruit
of the Mandrake (Mandragora officinar-
um) are also called Apples of Love and
are identical to the golden apples of
Aphrodite.

Above middle: The ripe black berries of
the Deadly Nightshade (Atropa bella-
donna).

Above right: White or yellow Henbane
(Hyoscyamus albus) was consecrated
to the god of oracles, Apollo.

closet of the ladle, they found a Pipe of
ointment, wherewith she greased a
staffe, upon which she ambled and gal-
loped through thick and thin, when and
in what manner she listed.” Later, in the
fifteenth century, a similar account sta-
ted: “But the vulgar believe and the
witches confess, that on certain days
and nights they anoint a staff and ride
on it to the appointed place or anoint
themselves under the arms and in other
hairy places and sometimes carry charms
under the hair.” Porta, a contemporary
of Galileo, wrote in 1589 that under the
effects of a potion of these solanaceous
plants a “man would seem sometimes to
be changed into a fish; and flinging out
his arms, would swim on the ground;
sometimes he would seem to skip up
and then to dive down again. Another
would believe himself turned into a
goose and would eat grass, and beat the
ground with his teeth like a goose; now
and then sing and . . . clap his wings.”
Mandrake became famous in magic
and witchcraft because of its powerful
narcotic effects and the bizarre form of
its root. It would be difficult to find a
better example of the application of the
philosophy of the Doctrine of Signa-

tures. For the root of this herbaceous
perennial, unassuming in its growth ap-
pearance, is so twisted and branched
that it occasionally resembles the human
body. This extraordinary resemblance
led early to the belief that it exercised
great supernatural powers over the hu-
man body and mind, even though actu-
ally its chemical composition gave it no
greater psychoactivity than some other
solanaceous species.

From earliest times, curious beliefs
about the need to exercise great care in
harvesting the root grew up. Theo-
phrastus in the third century b. C. wrote
that collectors of medicinal plants drew
circles around Mandrake, and they cut
off the top part of the root while facing
west; the remainder of the root was
gathered after the collectors had per-
formed certain dances and recited spe-
cial formulas. Two centuries earlier, the
Greek Pythagoras had described Man-
drake root as an anthropomorph, or
tiny human being. In Roman times that
magic began extensively to be associ-
ated with the psychoactive properties
of the plant. In the first century a. d.,
Josephus Flavius wrote that there grew
a plant in the Dead Sea area that glowed

red at night and that it was difficult to
approach the plant, which hid when a
man drew near it; but it could be tamed
if urine and menstrual blood were
sprinkled on it. It was physically dan-
gerous to pull the plant from the earth,
but a dog, tied to the root, was em-
ployed to extract the root, after which,
according to belief, the animal usually
died. The myths surrounding Mandrake
grew, until it was said that the plant hid
by day but shone like a star at night, and
that when being pulled from the ground
the plant let out such unearthly shrieks
that whoever heard the noise might die.
Eventually, only black dogs — a color
denoting evil and death — were em-
ployed. Early Christians believed that
the Mandrake root was originally cre-

ated by God as an experiment before
he created man in the Garden of Eden.

When, later in the Dark Ages, Man-
drake began to be cultivated in central
Europe, it was thought that the plant
would grow only under gallows where
urine or semen from the condemned
man fell — hence the common German
names meaning “gallows man” and
“dragon doll,”

The apogee of Mandrake’s fame seems
to have occurred in the late sixteenth
century. At this time, the herbalists be-
gan to doubt many of the tales associated
with the plant. As early as 1526 the Eng-
lish herbalist Turner had denied that all
Mandrake roots had a human form and
protested against the beliefs connected
with its anthropomorphism. Another
English herbalist, Gerard, for example,
wrote in 1597: “All which dreams and
old wives tales you shall henceforth cast
out of your books and memory; know-
ing this, that they are all and everie part
of them false and most untrue. For I my
selfe and my servants also have digged
up, planted and replanted very many
. . .’’But many superstitions surrounding
Mandrake persisted in European foil-
lore even into the nineteenth century.

Above left: In the Temple of Apollo at
Delphi, the “navel of the world,” the Sibyl
and prophetess informed the Pythia of
her oracle after she had inhaled the
smoke of Henbane.

Above middle: The root of the Mandrake
(Mandragora officinarum).

Above right: The Ginseng’s (Panax gin-
seng) root is not only similar to the
Mandrake, but in Korea, Ginseng root is
also attributed with secret and magical
powers,

Be/ow/eff.-Thesun and oracle god
Apollo at a libation in front of a raven.
(Discovered at Delphi).

1? “™ ABI THE NECTAR OF DELIGHT

Marijuana

Hashish

Tradition m India maintains that the
gods sent man the Hemp plant so that
he might attain delight and courage,
and have heightened sexual desires.
When nectar or Amrita dropped down
trom heaven. Cannabis sprouted from
it. Another story tells how, when the
gods, helped by demons, churned the
milk ocean to obtain Amrita, one of the
resulting nectars was Cannabis. It was
consecrated to Shiva and was Indra’s fa-
vorite drink. After the churning of the

“seeds,” consumed by man for food;
for its narcotic properties; and thera-
peutically to treat a wide spectrum of
ills in folk medicine and m modern
pharmacopoeias.

Mainly because of its various uses,
Cannabis has been taken to many re-
gions around the world. Unusual things
happen to plants after long association
with man and agriculture. They are
grown in new and strange environ-
ments and often have opportunities to

Above left: Wild I lump plants (Cannabis
indica) with splendid white flowers in
the Langtang region of the Himalayas
(Nepal).

Above right: Masculine plant of a Hemp
cross-breed (Cannabis indica x sativa).

ocean, demons attempted to gain con-
trol of Amrita, but the gods were able
to prevent this seizure, giving Cannabis
the name Vijaya (“victory”) to com-
memorate their success. Ever since, this
plant of the gods has been held in India
to bestow supernatural powers on its
users.

The partnership of Cannabis and man
has existed now probably for ten thou-
sand years — since the discovery of agri-
culture in the Old World. One of our
oldest cultivars. Cannabis has been a
five-purpose plant: as a source of hem-
pen fibers; for its oil; for its akenes or

hybridize that are not offered in their
native habitats. They escape from culti-
vation and frequently become aggres-
sive weeds. They may be changed
through human selection for character-
istics associated with a specific use.
Many cultivated plants are so changed
from their ancestral types that it is not
possible to unravel their evolutionary
history. Such is not the case, however,
with Cannabis. Yet despite its long his-
tory as a major crop plant, Cannabis is
still characterized more by what is not
known about its biology than by what
is known.

Below left: The blue-skinned Hindu god Shiva takes great pleasure in Hemp.
Because of this, it is a sacred plant of the gods and is used for rituals and
Tantric practices.

Right: The long-haired Sadhus or “holy men” of India devote their lives to the
god Shiva. They have no property and practice yoga and meditation. In ad-
dition they often smoke a large amount of charas (handmade hash) and
ganja (Marijuana) sometimes mixed with Datura leaves and other psychoac-

tive plants (Sadhu at a Shiva temple, Pashupatinath, Kathmandu Valley,
Nepal).

Bottom right: Cannabis is consumed in many countries, usually illegally. It is
often smoked in hand-rolled cigarettes. There are countless products for the
consumption of marijuana for everyone from beginners to the specialists— for
instance, large-format rolling papers, preferably out of Hemp. Also shown here
are a metal cigarette box and lighter.

The botanical classification of Canna-
bis has long been uncertain. Botanists
have not agreed on the family to which
Cannabis belongs: early investigators
put it in the Nettle family (Urticaceae);
later it was accommodated in the Fig fa-
mily (Moraceae); the general trend today
is to assign it to a special family, Canna-
baceae, in which only Cannabis and Ha-
mulus, the genus of Hops, are members.
There has even been disagreement as to
how many species of Cannabis exist:

whether the genus comprises one highly
variable species or several distinct spe-
cies. Evidence now strongly indicates
that three species can be recognized:
C. indica, C. ruderalis, and C. sativa.
These species are distinguished by dif-
ferent growth habits, characters of the
akenes, and especially by major differ-
ences in structure of the wood. Although
all species possess cannabinols, there
may possibly be significant chemical dif-
ferences, but the evidence is not yet
available.

The Indian vedas sang of Cannabis as
one of the divine nectars, able to give

ggv

Above: In Africa Hemp is smoked for
medicinal and pleasurable purposes, as
this wood carving shows.

Top: The characteristic Hemp leaf
(Cannabis indica) was formerly a sym-
bol of the subculture and rebellion. To-
day, it has become a symbol of ecologi-
cal awareness.

man anything from good health and
long life to visions of the gods. The
Zend-Avesta of 600 b. c. mentions an in-
toxicating resin, and the Assyrians used
Cannabis as an incense as early as the
ninth century b. C.

Inscriptions from the Chou dynasty
in China, dated 700-500 b.c., have a
“negative” connotation that accompa-
nies the ancient character for Cannabis,
Ma, implying its stupefying properties.
Since this idea obviously predated writ-
ing, the Pen Tsao Ching, written in A. D.
100 but going back to a legendary em-
peror, Shen-Nung, 2000 b. c., maybe ta-
ken as evidence that the Chinese knew
and probably used the psychoactive
properties at very early dates. It was
said that Ma-fen (“Hemp fruit”) “if ta-
ken to excess, will produce hallucina-
tions [literally, “seeing devils”]. If taken
over a long term, it makes one commu-
nicate with spirits and lightens one’s

body.” A Taoist priest wrote in the fifth
century b.c. that Cannabis was em-
ployed by “necromancers, in combina-
tion with Ginseng, to set forward time
and reveal future events.” In these early
periods, use of Cannabis as a hallucino-
gen was undoubtedly associated with
Chinese shamanism, but by the time of
European contact 1,500 years later, sha-
manism had fallen into decline, and the
use of the plant for inebriation seems to
have ceased and been forgotten. Its
value in China then was primarily as a
fiber source. There was, however, a con-
tinuous record of Hemp cultivation in
China from Neolithic times, and it has
been suggested that Cannabis may have
originated in China, not in central Asia.

About 500 b. c. the Greek writer Her-
odotus described a marvelous steam
bath of the Scythians, aggressive horse-
men who swept out of the Trans-
caucasus eastward and westward. He

reported that “they make a booth by
fixing in the ground three sticks inclined
toward one another, and stretching
around them woollen pelts which they
arrange so as to fit as close as possible:
inside the booth a dish is placed upon
the ground into which they put a num-
ber of red hot stones and then add some
Hemp seed . . . immediately it smokes
and gives out such a vapor as no Grecian
vapor bath can exceed; the Scyths, de-
lighted, shout for joy . . Only recent-
ly, archaeologists have excavated frozen
Scythian tombs in central Asia, dated
between 500 and 300 B.C., and have
found tripods and pelts, braziers, and
charcoal with remains of Cannabis
leaves and fruit. It has generally been
accepted that Cannabis originated in
central Asia and that it was the
Scythians who spread the plant west-
ward to Europe.

While the Greeks and Romans may
not generally have taken Cannabis for
inebriation, they were aware of the psy-
choactive effects of the drug. Democri-
tus reported that it was occasionally
drunk with wine and myrrh to produce
visionary states, and Galen, about a. d.
200, wrote that it was sometimes cus-
tomary to give Hemp to guests to pro-
mote hilarity and enjoyment.

Cannabis arrived in Europe from the
north. The Roman writer Lucilius men-
tioned it in 120 B. C. Pliny the Elder out-
lined the preparation and grades of
hempen fibers in the first century A. D.,
and hempen rope was found in a Roman
site in England dated a. d. 140-180.
Whether or not the Vikings used Hemp
rope is not known, but palynological
evidence indicates that Hemp cultiva-
tion had a tremendous increment in
England from the early Anglo-Saxon
period to late Saxon and Norman
times — from 400 to 1100.

Henry VIII fostered the cultivation
of Hemp in England. The maritime su-
premacy of England during Elizabethan
times greatly increased the demand.
Hemp cultivation began in the British
colonies in the New World: first in Ca-
nada in 1606, then in Virginia in 1611;
the Pilgrims took the crop to New Eng-

land in 1632. In pre-Revolutionary
North America, Hemp was employed
even for making work clothes.

Hemp was introduced quite indepen-
dently into Spanish colonies in South
America: Chile, 1545; Peru, 1554.

There is no doubt that hempen fiber
production represents an early use of
Cannabis, but perhaps consumption of
its edible akenes as food predated the
discovery of the useful fiber. These
akenes are very nutritious, and it is dif-
ficult to imagine that early man, con-
stantly searching for food, would have
missed this opportunity. Archaeological
finds of Hemp akenes in Germany, da-
ted at 500 B. c., indicate the nutritional
use of these plant products. From early
times to the present. Hemp akenes have
been used as food in eastern Europe,
and in the United States as a major in-
gredient of bird food.

The folk-medicinal value of Hemp' —
frequently indistinguishable from its
psychoactive properties — may even be
its earliest role as an economic plant.
The earliest record of the medicinal use
of the plant is that of the Chinese em-
peror-herbalist Shen-Nung who, five
thousand years ago, recommended
Cannabis for malaria, beri-beri, consti-
pation, rheumatic pains, absent-mind-
edness, and female disorders. Hoa-Glio,
another ancient Chinese herbalist, re-
commended a mixture of Hemp resin
and wine as an analgesic during surgery.

It was in ancient India that this “gift
of the gods” found excessive use in folk
medicine. It was believed to quicken
the mind, prolong life, improve judg-
ment, lower fevers, induce sleep, cure
dysentery. Because of its psychoactive
properties it was more highly valued
than medicines with only physical ac-
tivity. Several systems of Indian medi-
cine esteemed Cannabis. The medical
work Sushrata states that it cured le-
prosy. The Bharaprakasha, of about
a. D. 1600, described it as antiphleg-
matic, digestive, bile affecting, pungent,
and astringent, prescribing it to stimu-
late the appetite, improve digestion, and
better the voice. The spectrum of med-
icinal uses in India covered control of

Top: Feminine flower of industrial Hemp
(Cannabis sativa).

Above . -The Chinese emperor Shen-
Nung is said to have discovered the
medicinal properties of many plants. His
pharmacopoeia, believed to have been
first compiled in 2737 b. c., notes that
Cannabis sativa has both male and fe-
male plants.

Right: There are countless strains of Hemp that contain barely any THC, the
intoxicating and euphoric constituent. These species are used in the produc-
tion of fiber, but are not suited for personal consumption, as the warning sign
in the botanical gardens in Bern, Switzerland, states: "This industrial Hemp is
useless for the production of drugs because of its lack of active properties.”

Bottom: Feminine plants of flowering industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa).

1 ’

- — ■ — r

uiestt rase r hanf

fix

tst wegeniseines.' genngen
WiLkstoffgehaltes. ■
fiiir une Drogenhersreilung

.mtzlos

dandruff and relief of headache, mania,
insomnia, venereal disease, whooping
cough, earache, and tuberculosis!

The fame of Cannabis as a medicine
spread with the plant. In parts of Africa,
it was valued in treating dysentery, ma-
laria, anthrax, and fevers. Even today
the Hottentots and Mfengu claim its ef-
ficacy in treating snakebites, and Sotho
women induce partial stupefaction by
smoking Hemp before childbirth.

Cannabis was highly valued in medi-
cine, and its therapeutic uses can be
traced back to early classical physicians
Dioscorides and Galen. Medieval herb-
alists distinguished “manured hempe”
(cultivated) from “bastard hempe”
(weedy), recommending the latter
“against nodes and wennes and other
hard tumors,” the former for a host of
uses from curing cough to jaundice.
They cautioned, however, that in excess
it might cause sterility, that “it drieth up
. . . the seeds of generation” in men “and
the milke of women’s breasts.” An inter-
esting use in the sixteenth century —
source of the name Angler’s Weed in
England — was locally important: “pou-
red into the holes of earthwormes [it]
will draw them forth and . . , fishermen
and anglers have used this feate to baite
their hooks.”

The value of Cannabis in folk medi-
cine has clearly been closely tied with
its euphoric and psychoactive proper-
ties; knowledge of these effects may be
as old as its use as a source of fiber.
Primitive man, trying all sorts of plant

Top left: In northern India the Hemp
leaves are soaked in water, shredded
and then rolled into balls. These are
sold as “Bhang" on the market (display
in the Governmental Ganja Shop Om
Varnasi, Benares).

materials as food, must have known the
ecstatic euphoria-inducing effects of
Hemp, an intoxication introducing him
to an otherworldly plane leading to re-
ligious beliefs. Thus the plant early was
viewed as a special gift of the gods, a
sacred medium for communion with
the spirit world.

Although Cannabis today is the most
widely employed psychoactive sub-
stance, its use purely as a narcotic, ex-
cept in Asia, appears not to be ancient.
In classical times its euphoric properties
were, however, recognized. In Thebes,
Hemp was made into a drink said to
have opium-like properties. Galen re-
ported that cakes with Hemp, if eaten
to excess, were intoxicating. The use as
an inebriant seems to have been spread
east and west by barbarian hordes of
central Asia, especially the Scythians,
who had a profound cultural influence
on early Greece and eastern Europe.
And knowledge of the psychoactive ef-
fects of Hemp goes far back in Indian
history, as indicated by the deep mytho-
logical and spiritual beliefs about the
plant. One preparation, Bhang, was so
sacred that it was thought to deter evil,
bring luck, and cleanse man of sin.
Those treading upon the leaves of this
holy plant would suffer harm or disas-
ter, and sacred oaths were sealed over
Hemp. The favorite drink of Indra,
god of the firmament, was made from
Cannabis, and the Hindu god Shiva
commanded that the word Ghangi be
chanted repeatedly in hymns during

sowing, weeding, and harvesting of
the holy plant. Knowledge and use of
the intoxicating properties eventually
spread to Asia Minor. Hemp was em-
ployed as an incense in Assyria in the
first millennium B.C., suggesting its use
as an inebriant. While there is no direct
mention of Hemp in the Bible, several
obscure passages may refer tangentially
to the effects of Cannabis resin or
Hashish.

It is perhaps in the Himalayas of In-
dia and the Tibetan plateau that Canna-
bis preparations assumed their greatest
importance in religious contexts. Bhang
is a mild preparation: dried leaves or
flowering shoots are pounded with
spices into a paste and consumed as
candy — known as maa-jun — or in tea
form. Ganja is made from the resin-rich
dried pistillate flowering tops of culti-
vated plants that are pressed into a
compacted mass and kept under pres-
sure for several days to induce chemical
changes; most Ganja is smoked, often
with Tobacco or Datura. Charas con-
sists of the resin itself, a brownish mass
that is employed generally in smoking
mixtures.

The Tibetans considered Cannabis
sacred. A Mahayana Buddhist tradition
maintains that during the six steps of as-
ceticism leading to his enlightenment,
Buddha lived on one Hemp seed a day.
He is often depicted with “Soma leaves”
in his begging bowl and the mysterious
god-narcotic Soma has occasionally
been identified with Hemp. In Tantric

Top right : The Bhang balls are either
sucked on or mixed into a drink with
milk, yogurt, and water.

Page 97 above left: The Cora Indians of
the Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico
smoke Cannabis in the course of their
sacred ceremonies. Rarely is an intro-
duced foreign plant adopted and used in
indigenous religious ceremonies, but it
seems that the Cora of Mexico and the
Cuna of Panama have taken up the ri-
tual smoking of Cannabis, notwith-
standing the fact that, in both areas, it
was brought in by the early Europeans.

Page 97 above right: These three
photographs show the germinating
Hemp plant. The rounded leaves are
cotyledons or seed-leaves. The first real
leaves are always simple, not segmen-
ted as are the mature leaves.

Page 96 middle (4 Photos): The use of
Cannabis by peoples of both the Old
World and the New is widespread. In the
Old World (left to right) Cannabis is
being smoked by a Kung woman from
South Africa, a Pygmy from the Congo,
a traveler in Kashmir, and North African
Hashish smokers.

The Chemistry of Marijuana

Whereas the psychoactive principles of most hallucinogenic plants are alka-
loids, the active constituents of Cannabis are non-nitrogenous and occur in a
resinous oil. The psychoactive properties are due to cannabinoids, of which
the most effective is tetrahydrocannabinol, or THC — chemically: (-) A 1 -3,4-
transtetrahydrocannabinol. The highest concentration is found in the resin of
the unfertilized pistillate inflorescence. Even though less potent, the dried
leaves are also employed for their psychoactive effects.

Following the elucidation of the chemical structure (see molecular model
on page 184), it has recently been possible to synthesize THC.

Psychoactive Plants that are used as a Marijuana Substitute

Botanical Name

Common Name

Part of Plant Used

Alchornea floribunda

Niando

Roots

Argemone mexicana

Prickly Poppy

Leaves

Artemisia mexicana

Mexican Mugwort

Herbage

Calea zacatechichi

Dog Grass

Herbage

Canavalia maritima

Sea Bean

Leaves

Catharanthus roseus

Madagascar Periwinkle

Leaves

Cecropia mexicana

Chancarro

Leaves

Oestrum laevigatum

Lady of the Night

Leaves

Oestrum parqui

Palqui

Leaves

Cymbopogon densiflorus

Lemongrass

Flower extract

Helichrysum foetidum

Everlasting

Herbage

Helichrysum stenopterum

Everlasting

Herbage

Hieracium pilocella

Hawkweed

Herbage

Leonotis leonurus

Wild Dagga

Herbage

Leonurus sibiricus

Siberian Motherwort

Herbage

Nepeta cataria

Catnip

Herbage

Piper auritum

Root Beer Plant

Leaves

Sceletium tortuosum

Kougued

Herbage, Roots

Sida acuta

Common Wireweed

Herbage

Sida rhombifolia

Escobilla

Herbage

Turnera diffusa

Damiana

Herbage

Zornia diphylla

Maconha Brava

Leaves

Zornia latifolia

Maconha Brava

Dried leaves

Buddhism of the Himalayas of Tibet,
Cannabis plays a very significant role
in the meditative ritual used to facilitate
deep meditation and heighten aware-
ness. Both medicinal and recreational
secular use of Hemp is likewise so
common now in this region that the
plant is taken for granted as an every-
day necessity.

Folklore maintains that the use of
Hemp was introduced to Persia by an
Indian pilgrim during the reign of
Khursu (a. d. 531-579), but it is known
that the Assyrians used Hemp as an in-
cense during the first millennium B.c.
Although at first prohibited among Isla-
mic peoples, Hashish spread widely
west throughout Asia Minor. In 1378,
authorities tried to extirpate Hemp
from Arabian territory by the imposi-
tion of harsh punishments.

Cannabis extended early and widely
from Asia Minor into Africa, partly
under the pressure of Islamic influ-
ence, but the use of Hemp transcends
Islamic areas. It is widely believed that
Hemp was introduced also with slaves
from Malaya. Commonly known in
Africa as Kif or Dagga, the plant has

“Hemp is the ‘giver of joy,’ ‘heaven’s pilot,’ ‘the heavenly guide,’
‘the heaven of the poor man,’ ‘the soother of sorrows.’

No god, no man is as good as the religious hemp drinker.”

— Hemp Drug
Commission Report (1884)

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entered into archaic native cultures in
social and religious contexts. The Hot-
tentots, Bushmen, and Kaffirs used
Hemp for centuries as a medicine and
as an intoxicant. In an ancient tribal
ceremony in the Zambesi Valley, parti-
cipants inhaled vapors from a pile of
smoldering Hemp; later, reed tubes
and pipes were employed, and the
plant material was burned on an altar.
The Kasai tribes of the Congo have
revived an old Riamba cult in which
Hemp, replacing ancient fetishes and
symbols, was elevated to a god— a
protector against physical and spiritual
harm. Treaties are sealed with puffs of
smoke from calabash pipes. Hemp-
smoking and Hashish-snuffing cults
exist in many parts of east Africa,
especially near Lake Victoria.

Hemp has spread to many areas of the
New World, but with few exceptions
the plant has not penetrated signifi-
cantly into many Native American reli-
gious beliefs and ceremonies. There are,
however, exceptions, such as its use
under the name Rosa Maria, by the Te-
pecano Indians of northwest Mexico,
who occasionally employ Hemp when

Peyote is not available. It has recently
been learned that Indians in the Mexi-
can states of Veracruz, Hidalgo, and
Puebla practice a communal curing ce-
remony with a plant called Santa Rosa,
identified as Cannabis sativa, which is
considered both a plant and a sacred in-
tercessor with the Virgin. Although the
ceremony is based mainly on Christian
elements, the plant is worshiped as an
Earth deity and is thought to be alive
and to represent a part of the heart of
God. The participants in this cult be-
lieve that the plant can be dangerous
and that it can assume the form of a
man’s soul, make him ill, enrage him,
and even cause death.

Sixty years ago, when Mexican la-
borers introduced the smoking of Mar-
ijuana to the United States, it spread
across the South, and by the 1920s its
use was established in New Orleans,
confined primarily among the poor and
minority groups. The continued spread
of the custom in the United States and
Europe has resulted in a still unresolved
controversy.

Cannabis sativa was officially in the
U.S. Pharmacopoeia until 1937, recom-

Scanning Electron Microscopy

Above left: In C. sativa, well-developed
hairs of glandular and non-glandular
kinds are shown in various stages of
development.

Top right: Different types of glandular
hairs of Cannabis. The capitate gland
with a prominent pseudo-stalk on the
surface of the anther wall that faces the
center of the flower.

Bottom right: Bulbous gland from adax-
ial leaf surface. The stalk and head are
made up of two cells each. The tip of the
gland possesses a small, disk-shaped
region below which resin accumulates
in the extended membrane.

Page 98: Above, Cannabis sativa is
being harvested for Hemp at the turn
of the century. This species attains a
height of 18 feet (6m). Below, an extre-
mely potent Hashish is produced from
Cannabis indica, a low, pyramidal,
densely branched species, as shown
above growing wild near Kandahar,
Afghanistan.

Top: Drawing by W. Miller. Copyright
1978 The New Yorker Magazine, Inc.
“Hey, what is this stuff? it makes every-
thing I think seem profound.”

Below: Gustave Dore’s painting “Com-
position of the Death of Gerard de Ner-
val,” for which he may have used Can-
nabis and Opium for inspiration. The
contemporary American cartoon shows
in a humorous way the resurrection of
this belief.

100

Above: Marijuana is made from the
dried and slightly fermented blossoms
of the feminine Hemp plant.

Left: In Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonder-
land, the encounter between Alice and
the languorous caterpillar is as follows:
“She stretched herself up on tiptoe, and
peeped over the edge of the mushroom,
and her eyes immediately met those of
a large blue caterpillar that was sitting
on the top, with its arms folded, quietly
smoking a long hookah, and taking not
the slightest notice of her or anything
else.”

mended for a wide variety of disorders,
especially as a mild sedative. It is no
longer an official drug, although re-
search in the medical potential of some
of the cannabinolic constituents or their
semi-synthetic analogs is at present very
active, particularly in relation to the side
effects of cancer therapy.

The psychoactive effects of Cannabis
preparations vary widely, depending on
dosage, the preparation and the type of
plant used, the method of administra-
tion, the personality of the user, and
the social and cultural background.
Perhaps the most frequent characteris-
tic is a dreamy state. Long forgotten
events are often recalled and thoughts
occur in unrelated sequences. Percep-
tion of time, and occasionally of space,
is altered. Visual and auditory halluci-
nations sometimes follow the use of
large doses. Euphoria, excitement, in-
ner happiness — often with hilarity and
laughter — are typical. In some cases, a
final mood of depression may be ex-
perienced.

“This marvelous experience often
occurs as if it were the effect of a
superior and invisible power acting
on the person from without . . .
This delightful and singular state . . .
gives no advance warning.

It is as unexpected as a ghost,
an intermittent haunting
from which we must draw,
if we are wise,

the certainly of a better existence.

This acuteness of thought,
this enthusiasm of the senses and
the spirit must have appeared to
man through the ages
as the first blessing.”

— Charles Baudelaire
Les Paradis Artificiels

Above: In the nineteenth century, a se-
lect group of European artists and wri-
ters turned to psychoactive agents in an
attempt to achieve what has come to be
regarded as “mind-expansion” or “mind-
alteration.” Many people, such as the
French poet Baudelaire (below), be-
lieved that creative ability could be
greatly enhanced by the use of Canna-
bis. In fact, Baudelaire wrote vivid de-
scriptions of his personal experiences
under the influence of Cannabis.

101

on CLAVICEPS
Ergot

ST. ANTHONY’S FIRE

Above: While Ergot infects a number of
different grasses, it is best known as a
parasite on the inflorescence of rye.

Page 103 top: The Ergot of rye are con-
siderably bigger than those of the Pas-
palum grass.

Page 103 left: Fruiting bodies of Clavi-
ceps purpurea. The specific name of
this fungus means “purple,” a color that
in antiquity was linked with powers of
the underworld.

Page 103 right: When grain is infected
by Ergot, long black growths appear on
the heads, called sclerotium.

“The ancient testimony about Eleusis is
unanimous and unambiguous. Eleusis
was the supreme experience in an initia-
te’s life. It was both physical and mysti-
cal: trembling, vertigo, cold sweat, and
then a sight that made all previous see-
ing seem like blindness, a sense of awe
and wonder at a brilliance that caused a
profound silence, since what had just
been seen and felt could never be com-
municated; words were unequal to the
task. These symptoms are unmistakably
the experience induced by a hallucino-
gen. Greeks, and indeed some of the
most famous and intelligent among
them, could experience and enter fully
into, such irrationality. . .

“Eleusis was different from the con-
vivial inebriation of friends ... In their
various ways, other Greek cults too
enacted aspects of the ancient commu-
nion practiced between gods and men,
between the living and the dead, but it
was at Eleusis alone that the experi-
ence occurred with overwhelming fin-
ality . . .

“For close on to two thousand years,
a few of the ancient Greeks passed
each year through the portals of Eleu-
sis. There they celebrated the divine
gift to mankind of the cultivated grain,
and they were also initiated into the
awesome powers of the nether world
through the purple dark of the grain’s
sibling . . .”

Thus in an interdisciplinary study
based on three different approaches,
ethnomycology, classical studies, and
chemistry, the secret rites of ancient
Greece, which have remained a puzzle
for four thousand years, are associated
with intoxication caused by the fungus
Claviceps, which grows parasitically on
certain cereals.

It is now believed that the intoxicant
underlying the ecstasy experienced in
the mysteries was induced by Claviceps
paspali, and possibly other species,
growing on various Loliums and other
cereal grasses native to Greece. The bio-
dynamical principles characteristic of
the well-known Ergot, or Claviceps pur-
purea, have been isolated from some of
the other species of this fungal parasite.

The reasons for considering the Eleusian
mysteries to be associated with the use
of Claviceps are long and complex, but
the arguments are most convincing and
apparently from several disciplines
sound. Basically, it has now been shown
that several species of Claviceps can in-
fect a number of wild grasses in Greece.

By far the most important species of
Claviceps is C. purpurea, the Ergot of
rye (Secale cereale). This hard, brown
or purplish black sclerotium of a fungus
originating in the caryopsis of rye is
exceedingly common in Europe. The
native nomenclature of Claviceps pur-
purea is indeed complex. Ergot, the
French word for “spur” of a cock, now
generally employed in numerous lan-
guages, was first applied to the fungus
in a region not far from Paris. There
are, however, two dozen other words
for the sclerotium in French; sixty-two
vernacular names in German, Mutter-
korn being the most commonly used.
There are twenty-one in Dutch, fifteen
in the Scandinavian languages, fourteen
in Italian, and seven in English in addi-
tion to the borrowed word Ergot. This
proliferation of vernacular terminology
indicates the importance of the fungus
in European countries.

Although its medicinal use was un-
known in classical times, it was early re-
cognized as a poison. As far back as 600
B.c., the Assyrians called the spurlike
growth or Ergot a “noxious pustule in
the ear of the grain.” The sacred books
of the Parsees (about 350 B. c.) reported:
“Among the evil things created by An-
gro Maynes are noxious grasses that
cause pregnant women to drop the
womb and die in childbed.” Although
the ancient Greeks apparently em-
ployed the fungus in their religious ri-
tuals, they did not eat rye because of
the “black malodorous produce of
Thrace and Macedonia.” Rye was not
introduced into classical Europe until
the beginning of the Christian era, so
Ergot poisoning did not enter into Ro-
man pharmaceutical literature.

The earliest undoubted reports of Er-
got poisoning appeared during the Mid-
dle Ages, when bizarre epidemics broke

102

out in various parts of Europe, taking
thousands of lives and causing untold
agony and suffering. These epidemics
manifested themselves in two forms:
those with nervous convulsions and epi-
leptic symptoms; those with gangrene,
mummifications, atrophy, and occa-
sional loss of extremities — noses, ear-
lobes, fingers, toes, and feet. Delirium

and hallucinations were common symp-
toms of the intoxication, which was fre-
quently fatal. An early European visita-
tion of ergotism described it as “a great
plague of swollen blisters [that] con-
sumed the people by a loathsome rot.”
Abortions of women were general dur-
ing these attacks. The “Holy Fire” was
always characterized by a feeling of
burning in the feet and hands.

St. Anthony, after whom the “fire”
was named, lived as a religious hermit
in Egypt; he died at the age of 105 in
a. D. 356. He is the protecting saint
against fire, epilepsy, and infection.
During the Crusades, the knights
brought back his remains to Dauphine,
in France, for burial. It was here in Dau-
phine that the earliest recognized plague
of “Holy Fire” occurred in 1039. A
wealthy citizen, Gaston, and his son
were among the afflicted, and Gaston

The Chemistry of Ergot

The active ingredients in Ergot are indole alkaloids, all derived from the same
basic compound, lysergic acid. The most important alkaloids in Ergot of rye
are ergotamine and ergotoxine, in which lysergic acid is connected with a
peptide radical consisting of three amino acids. These alkaloids and their
derivatives have various medicinal uses.

In toxic doses they cause gangrene because of their vasoconstricting
properties. Ergot from wild grasses, however, contains essentially simple
lysergic acid amides, ergine, and lysergic acid-hydroxyethylamide (found
only in traces in Ergot of rye). These psychotropic alkaloids may have played
a role in the convulsive form of ergotism. They occur as the main active
principles in the Mexican Morning Glory Ololiuqui (Turbina corymbosa) [see
page 187 for the molecular model of the chemical structure] and other Bind-
weeds (ipomoea violacea, Argyreia nervosa).

103

'‘U'i'i'e left: The goddess Demeter with
sheaves of grain and opium pods in her
hami.

''ve right: The Plutoniuon of Eleusis.

Pa !Jv 1 05 bottom: One of the rare out-
breaks of ergotism in England attacked
on e family in Wattisham in 1762. So
unusual was this plague that it has been
nationalized with a plaque in the parish
chinch.

promised to give all his wealth to aid
other victims if St. Anthony would cure
him and his son. Thus it was that in this
French town a hospital to care for suf-
ferers was founded and the Order of St.
Anthony was also established.

A pilgrimage to shrines consecrated
to St. Anthony was believed to cure
the disease. But a change in diet — bread
free of Ergot — may have had a benefi-
cial effect. It was not until 1676 — some
five hundred years after the height of St.
Anthony’s fire — that the real cause of
ergotism was discovered, whereupon
measures of control were set up. Millers
in the Middle Ages frequently kept
clean rye flour for the affluent, selling
flour made from “spurred rye” — that
infected with Ergot- — to poorer custo-
mers. Once the cause was known, vigi-
lance in the mills quickly reduced the
epidemics of St. Anthony’s fire.

Even today, however, there are occa-
sional outbreaks of epidemics in which
whole villages are affected. The most
notorious recent attacks have occurred
in France and Belgium in 1953 and in
the Ukraine and Ireland in 1929. There
are suggestions that the alleged out-
breaks of witchcraft in colonial New
England, especially in Salem, Massachu-

setts, may have been due to Ergot poi-
soning.

European midwives had long known
that Ergot could aid in cases of difficult
childbirth and had used the fungus for
that purpose. Chemicals isolated from
Ergot are still official drugs to induce
contraction of involuntary muscles in
stubborn childbirth. The earliest medi-
cal report of the obstetric value of Ergot
was published in 1582 by Lonicer of
Frankfurt, who stated that Ergot-
parasitized rye is of sovereign efficiency
in pregnancy pains. Although widely
employed by midwives, Ergot was first
employed by a physician when Des-
granges of Lyons experimented with it
and published his observations in 1818.
The Swiss botanist Bauhin described
Ergot in 1595, and his son later pro-
duced the first illustration of Ergot in
1658. In 1676, the French physician-
botanist Dodart added much scientific
knowledge to the story of Ergot. He ad-
vised the French Academy that the only
way to control plagues of ergotism was
to sift the rye to extract the Ergot spores
from it. But even as late as 1750, bota-
nists still were uncertain how Ergot
grew and why it was toxic. In 1711 and
again in 1761, learned botanists accepted

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the view that the black spur was formed
by the germinating embryo, which cau-
sed a hypertrophied growth in place of
a normal caryopsis. Only in 1764 did
the German botanist von Miinchhausen
declare that Ergot was a fungal infec-
tion, but his opinion was not accepted
until the famous botanist A. P. de Can-
dolle proved it in 1815. A widely ac-
claimed report of Ergot efficacy was
published by Dr. John Stearns in 1808.
A few years later, a Massachusetts doc-
tor, Prescott, gave a dissertation on the
“natural history and medicinal effects”
of Ergot, which, when published in
1813, called the attention of medical
science in the New World to the re-

markable properties of the fungus.
From that time on, Ergot was increas-
ingly employed in medicine, although it
was not accepted in the Pharmacopoeia
until 1836.

It was not, however, until the 1920s
that the active principles of Claviceps
purpurea were known: ergotamine in
1921; ergonovine in 1935. Subsequently,
a number of other related alkaloids have
been discovered in the plant. Even
though this dangerous infection of rye
never had a major magico-religious role
in European culture, it did earn a special
place as a plant having connections with
spiritual forces — a kind of malevolent
plant of the gods.

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Above left: Persephone, the Queen of
the Dead, making an offering of shafts
of grain; is enthroned beside her hus-
band, Hades, Lord of the Underworld.
Originally a goddess associated with
grain, she was abducted to the Under-
world by Hades, and her return from the
realm of the dead was connected with
symbolic rebirth experiences in the
Eleusinian mysteries, where the wor-
shipers believed that the restoration of
the goddess to the upper world ensured
the faithful a resurrection. It is possible
that these amazing events in Perse-
phone’s life might have been linked with
intoxication from Ergot, since Greek
sophistication in the chemical proper-
ties of plants was well developed.

Above right: The title page of a German
book from 1771, Ergot: An Alleged
Cause of the So-called St. Anthony’s
Fire.

105

27 datura INNOXIA
' Toloache

DATURA METEL
Datura

DATURA STRAMONIUM
Thorn Apple

HOLY FLOWER
OF THE NORTH STAR

Above left: The Datura stramonium var.
tatula is the most common in the Hima-
layas. It is easily recognized by the
violet color of the flower.

Above right: The sacred Thorn Apple
(Datura metel) is often found in the
Himalayas on altars to the gods of the
mountains (photo taken in Tukche,
Nepal).

Below right: A yellow-flowered Datura
metel in full bloom.

A beautiful Zuni Indian legend tells of
the divine origin of Aneglakya, Datura
innoxia, their most sacred plant:

“In the olden time a boy and a girl,
brother and sister (the boy’s name was
A’neglakya and the girl’s name A’negla-
kyatsi’tsa), lived in the interior of the
earth, but they often came to the outer
world and walked about a great deal,
observing closely everything they saw
and heard and repeating all to their
mother. This constant talking did not
please the Divine Ones (twin sons of
the Sun Father). On meeting the boy
and the girl the Divine Ones asked,
‘How are you?’ and the brother and sis-
ter answered, ‘We are happy.’ (Some-
times A’neglakya and A’neglakyatsi’tsa
appeared on Earth as old people.) They
told the Divine Ones how they could
make one sleep and see ghosts, and
how they could make one walk about a
little and see one who had committed
theft. After this meeting the Divine
Ones concluded that A’neglakya and
A’neglakyatsi’tsa knew too much and
that they should be banished for all time
from this world; so the Divine Ones

caused the brother and sister to disap-
pear into the earth forever. Flowers
sprang up at the spot where the two des-
cended — flowers exactly like those that
they wore on each side of their heads
when visiting the earth. The Divine
Ones called the plant ‘a’neglakya’ after
the boy’s name. The original plant has
many children scattered over the earth;
some of the blossoms are tinged with
yellow, some with blue, some with red,
some are all white — the colors belong-
ing to the four cardinal points.”

This and related species of Datura

The Chemistry of Datura

The various species of Datura contain the same major alkaloids as related
solanaceous plants (Angel’s Trumpet, Belladonna, Henbane, and Mandrake)
hyoscyamine and, in greatest concentration, scopolamine. Meteloidine is a
characteristic secondary alkaloid of D. metel.

have long been employed as sacred hal-
lucinogens, especially in Mexico and the
American Southwest, and have played
major roles in native medicine and
magico-religious rites. Their undoubted
danger as potent narcotics, however, has
never been challenged, even from ear-
liest times.

In the Old World, Datura has had a
long history as a medicine and sacred
hallucinogen, although the genus has
apparently never enjoyed the ceremo-
nial role that it has had in the New
World. Early Sanskrit and Chinese
writings mention Datura metel. It was
undoubtedly this species that the Ara-
bian doctor Avicenna reported in the
eleventh century under the name Jouz-
mathal (“metel nut”); this report was
repeated in Dioscorides’ writings. The
name metel is taken from this Arabic
term, while the generic epithet Datura
was adapted to Latin by Linnaeus from
the Sanskrit Dhatura. In China, the
plant was considered sacred: when Bud-
dha was preaching, heaven sprinkled the
plant with dew or raindrops. A Taoist
legend maintains that Datura metel is

one of the circumpolar stars and that
envoys to earth from this star carry a
flower of the plant in their hand. Several
species of Datura were introduced into
China from India between the Sung and
Ming dynasties — that is, between a. d.
960 and 1644 — so they were not re-
corded in earlier herbals. The herbalist
Li Shih-chen reported the medicinal
uses of one of the species known as
Man-t’o-lo in 1596: the flowers and
seeds were employed to treat eruptions
on the face, and the plant was prescribed
internally for colds, nervous disorders,
and other problems. It was taken to-
gether with Cannabis in wine as an an-
esthesia for minor surgical operations.
Its narcotic properties were known to
the Chinese, for Li Shih-chen person-
ally experimented on himself and wrote:
“According to traditions, it is alleged
that when the flowers are picked for
use with wine while one is laughing,
the wine will cause one to produce
laughing movements; and when the
flowers are picked while one is dancing,
the wine will cause one to produce dan-
cing movements. [I have found out] that

Top: Traditional depiction of the Thorn
Apple on a Tibetan medicinal painting.

Above left: The hanging fruit of Datura
irmoxia. The seeds that are chewed by
shamans to induce a clairvoyant trance
are clearly visible.

Above middle: Many species of Datura
have played a vital medicinal and ineb-
riant role in Mexico since early times.
This page from the “Badianus Manu-
script’ ( Codex Berberini Latina 241 ,
Folio 29) depicts two species of Datura
and describes their therapeutic uses.
This document of 1 542 is the first herbal
to be written in the New World.

Above right: A Datura flower is left as an
offering on a Shiva Lingam at Pashupa-
tinath (Nepal).

107

valued Datura metel for treating mental
disorders, various fevers, tumors, breast
inflammations, skin diseases, and diar-
rhea.

In other parts of Asia, D. metel was
valued and similarly employed in native
medicine and as an intoxicant. Even to-
day, seeds or powdered leaves of this
plant are often mixed with Cannabis or
Tobacco and smoked in Indochina. In

Right: The typical fruit of the Datura
metel. In India it is given to the god
Shiva as an offering.

Below: It was believed that when Bud-
dha preached, dew or raindrops fell
from heaven on Datura. This bronze
shrine from the Sui period of China de-
picts Amitabha Buddha seated under
the jeweled trees of Paradise.

such movements will be produced when
one becomes half-drunk with the wine
and someone else laughs or dances to
induce these actions.”

In India, it was called tuft of Shiva, the
god of destruction. Dancing girls some-
times drugged wine with its seeds, and
whoever drank of the potion, appearing
in possession of his senses, gave answers
to questions, although he had no control
of his will, was ignorant of whom he was
addressing, and lost all memory of what
he did when the intoxication wore off.
For this reason, many Indians called the
plant “drunkard,” “madman,” “decei-
ver,” and “foolmaker.” The British
traveler Hardwicke found this plant
common in mountain villages in India
in 1796 and reported that an infusion of
the seeds was used to increase the intox-
ication from alcoholic drinks. During
the Sanskritic period, Indian medicine

108

1578, its use as an aphrodisiac in the
East Indies was reported. From earliest
classical times, the dangers of Datura
were recognized. The English herbalist
Gerard believed that Datura was the
Hippomanes that the Greek writer
Theocritus mentioned as driving horses
mad.

Datura stramonium var. ferox, a spe-
cies now widely distributed in the war-
mer parts of both hemispheres, has uses
almost identical with those of D. metel.
It is employed especially in parts of
Africa. In Tanzania, it is added to
Pombe, a kind of beer, for its inebriating

to induce visual hallucinations but also
for a great variety of medicinal uses,
especially when applied to the body to
relieve rheumatic pains and to reduce
swellings.

Writing shortly after the conquest of
Mexico, Hernandez mentioned its med-
icinal value but warned that excessive
use would drive patients to madness
with “various and vain imaginations.”
Neither its magico-religious nor its ther-
apeutic use has diminished in Mexico.
Among the Yaqui, for example, it is ta-
ken by women to lessen the pain of
childbirth. It is considered so powerful
that it can be handled only by “someone
of authority.” One ethnobotanist wrote:
“My collecting these plants was often
accompanied with warnings that I
would go crazy and die because I was
mistreating them. Some Indians refused
to talk to me for several days afterward.”

Page 108 bottom right: The opening
blossom of a Datura innoxia. The
Mayans call it xtohk’uh, “toward the
gods,” and still use it for shamanic pur-
poses such as divination and medicinal
healing.

Above left: A Datura fruit has been left
as an offering at the image of Nandi,
Shiva’s sacred steer.

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effects. A common medical use in Africa
is smoking the leaves to relieve asthma
and pulmonary problems.

In the New World, the Mexicans call
Datura Toloache, a modern version of
the ancient Aztec Toloatzin (that is,
“inclined head,” in reference to its nod-
ding fruit). It was also known in the
Nahuatl language as Tolohuaxihuitl
and Tlapatl. It was employed not only

Toloache is rather widely added to mes-
cal, a distilled liquor from Agave, or to
Tesguino, a fermented maize drink, as an
added intoxicant — “as a catalyst and to
induce a good feeling and visions.”
Some Mexicans prepare a fatty ointment
containing seeds and leaves of Toloache,
which is rubbed over the abdomen to in-
duce visual hallucinations.

Among the Indians of the Southwest,

Bottom left: In northern India Datura
fruit is threaded into garlands and
offered to the Hindu god Shiva.

Bottom right: The Curanderos (local
healers) of northern Peru enjoy using a
perfume that is named Chamico (Thorn
Apple).

109

Top left: The thorn-protected fruit of a
rare species of Thorn Apple.

Bottom left: The blossoms of the Thorn
Apple (Datura stramonium) open in the
evening, exude a delightful scent
throughout the night, and fade in the
morning

Right: A purple variety of the Datura
metel, better known as Datura fastuosa.
In particular, this plant is used in Africa
as an inebriant in initiation rites.

“I ate the thorn apple leaves
And the leaves made me
dizzy.

I ate the thorn apple, leaves
And the leaves made me
dizzy.

I ate the thorn apple flowers
And the drink made me
stagger.

The hunter’s bow remaining
He overtook and killed me.

Cut and threw my horns
away,

The hunter, reed remaining.

He overtook and killed me
Cut and threw my feet away.

Now the flies become crazy
And drop with flapping
wings.

No drunken butterflies sit
With opening and shutting
wings.”

— F. Russel
Pima hunting song

D. innoxia has assumed extraordinary
importance as a sacred element and is
the most widely used plant to induce
hallucinations. The Zunis believe that
the plant belongs to the Rain Priest
Fraternity and rain priests alone may
collect its roots. These priests put the
powdered root into their eyes to com-
mune with the Feathered Kingdom at
night, and they chew the roots to ask
the dead to intercede with the spirits
for rain. These priests further use D. in-
noxia for its analgesic effects, to deaden
pain during simple operations, bone-
setting, and cleaning ulcerated wounds.
The Yokut, who call the plant Tanayin,
take the drug only during the spring,
since it is considered to be poisonous in
the summer; it is given to adolescent
boys and girls only once in a lifetime to
ensure a good and a long life.

Boys and girls of the Tubatulobal
tribe drink Datura after puberty to
"obtain life,” and adults use it to obtain
visions. The roots are macerated and
soaked in water for ten hours; after
drinking large amounts of this liquor,
the youths fall into a stupor accompa-
nied by hallucinations that may last up
to twenty-four hours. If an animal — an
eagle, a hawk, for example — is seen dur-
ing the visions, it becomes the child’s
"pet” or spiritual mascot for life: if
"life” is seen, the child acquires a ghost.
The ghost is the ideal object to appear,
since it cannot die. Children never may
kill the animal “pet” that they see in
their Datura vision, for these “pets”
may visit during serious illness and ef-
fect a cure.

The Yuman tribes believe that the re-
action of braves under the influence of
Toloache may foretell their future.
These people use the plant to gain oc-
cult power. If birds sing to a man in a
Datura trance, he acquires the power
to cure.

The Navajo take Datura for its vi-
sionary properties, valuing it for diag-
nosis, healing, and purely intoxicating
use. Navajo use is magic-oriented. Vi-
sions induced by this drug are especially
valued, since they reveal certain animals
possessing special significance. Upon
learning from these visions the cause of
a disease, a chant may be prescribed. If a
man be repulsed in love by a girl, he
seeks revenge by putting her saliva or
dust from her moccasins on a Datura,
then the singing of a chant will immedi-
ately drive the girl mad.

Datura stramonium is now believed
to be native to eastern America, where
the Algonquins and other tribes may
have employed it as a ceremonial hallu-
cinogen. Indians of Virginia used a toxic
medicine called wysoccan in initiatory
rites: the Huskanawing ceremony. The
active ingredient was probably Datura
stramonium. Youths were confined for
long periods, given "no other substance
but the infusion or decoction of some
poisonous, intoxicating roots” and
“they became stark, staring mad, in
which raving condition they were kept
eighteen or twenty days.” During the
ordeal, they “unlive their former lives”
and begin manhood by losing all mem-
ory of ever having been boys.

There is in Mexico a curious species

110

Right: A magician of Kuma in northeast
Africa leads entranced women in a ritual
dance. The substance that they ingest con-
sists of a secret mixture of many different
plants, most of which are unknown. Evi-
dence suggests that Datura is among them.
The women are possessed by the spirits
who use them as their medium.

Left: The illustration from the early
writings of Sahagun. the Spanish friar
who wrote shortly after the conquest
of Mexico, pictures the utilization of

an infusion of Datura to relieve
rheumatism. This use is still found
recommended in modern
pharmacopoeias.

of Datura, so distinct that a separate
section of the genus has been set up for
its classification. It is D. ceratocaula, a
fleshy plant with thick, forking stems
of bogs, or growing in water. Known as
Torna Loco ("maddening plant”), it is
powerfully narcotic. In ancient Mexico,
it was considered “sister of Ololiuqui”
and was held in great veneration. Little
is known concerning its use today for
hallucinogenic purposes.

The effects of all species are similar,
since their constituents are so much
alike. Physiological activity begins with
a feeling of lassitude and progresses into
a period of hallucinations followed by
deep sleep and loss of consciousness. In
excessive doses, death or permanent in-
sanity may occur. So potent is the psy-
choactivity of all species of Datura that
it is patently clear why peoples in indi-
genous cultures around the world have
classed them as plants of the gods.

Ill

Qn TABERNANTHE
yU Iboga

GUIDE TO THE ANCESTORS

Page 1 13 top: Dried Iboga roots.

Page 1 13 middle left: Old wooden fetish
objects of the Fang, who were once
associated with an Iboga cult.

Page 1 13 middle right: The conspicu-
ous bright yellow fruits of the Iboga.

“Zame ye Mebege [the last of the crea-
tor gods] gave us Eboka. One day ... he
saw . . . the Pygmy Bitamu, high in an
Atanga tree, gathering its fruit. He made
him fall. He died, and Zame brought his
spirit to him. Zame cut off the little fin-
gers and the little toes of the cadaver of
the Pygmy and planted them in various
parts of the forest. They grew into the
Eboka bush.”

open the head,” thus inducing a contact
with the ancestors through collapse and
hallucinations.”

The drug has far-reaching social in-
fluence. According to the natives, the
initiate cannot enter the cult until he
has seen Bwiti, and the only way to see
Bwiti is to eat Iboga. The complex cere-
monies and tribal dances associated
with consumption of Iboga vary greatly

Left: The roots of the Iboga bush are ri-
tually eaten by the Bwiti cult in order to
call forth the ancestors.

Right: Iboga, necessary for rituals, is
grown at the temple of the Bwiti cult.

One of the few members of the Apo-
cynaceae utilized as a hallucinogen, this
shrub attains a height of 4 to 6 feet (1.5—
2 m). Its yellowish root is the active part
of the plant, containing the psychoac-
tive alkaloids. The root bark is rasped
and eaten directly as raspings or as a
powder or is drunk as an infusion.

Iboga is basic to the Bwiti cult and
other secret societies in Gabon and
Zaire. The drug is taken in two ways:
regularly in limited doses before and in
the early part of the ceremonies, fol-
lowed after midnight by a smaller
dose; and once or twice during the in-
itiation to the cult in excessive doses of
one to three basketfuls over an eight-
to twenty-four-hour period, to “break

from locality to locality. Iboga enters
also other aspects of Bwiti’s control of
events. Sorcerers take the drug to seek
information from the spirit world, and
leaders of the cult may consume Iboga
for a full day before asking advice from
ancestors.

Iboga is intimately associated with
death: the plant is frequently anthropo-
morphized as a supernatural being, a
“generic ancestor,” which can so highly
value or despise an individual that it can
carry him away to the realm of the dead.
There are sometimes deaths from the
excessive doses taken during initiations,
but the intoxication usually so interferes
with motor activity that the initiates
must sit gazing intently into space,

112

eventually collapsing and having to be
carried to a special house or forest hide-
out. During this almost comatose peri-
od, the “shadow” (soul) leaves the body
to wander with the ancestors in the land
of the dead. The bahzie (angels) — the
initiates — relate their visions as follows:
“A dead relative came to me in my sleep
and told me to eat it”; “I was sick and
was counseled to eat Iboga to cure

The Chemistry of Iboga

As with other hallucinogens, especially Teonanacatl ( Psilocybe spp.) and
Ololiuqui, the active principles of Tabernanthe iboga belong to the large class
of indole alkaloids. Ibogaine, which can be produced synthetically, is the main
alkaloid of T. iboga. Its hallucinogenic effects are accompanied by strong sti-
mulation of the central nervous system.

myself”; “I wanted to know God — to
know things of the dead and the land
beyond”; “I walked or flew over a long,
multicolored road or over many rivers
which led me to my ancestors, who then
took me to the great gods.”

Iboga may act as a powerful stimu-
lant, enabling the partaker to maintain
extraordinary physical exertion without
fatigue over a long period. The body
may feel lighter, and levitation — a feel-
ing of floating — is often experienced.
Spectrums or rainbowlike effects are
seen in surrounding objects, indications
to the banzie that the initiate is ap-
proaching the realms of the ancestors
and of the gods. Time perception is al-
tered; time is lengthened, and initiates

Addiction Therapy with Ibogaine

Iboga roots contain an alkaloid known as ibogaine. This substance was first
introduced in the 1 960s by the Chilean psychiatrist Claudio Naranjo as a
“fantasy-enhancing drug” for psychotherapy. Today, ibogaine is in the spot-
light of neuropsychological research, which has shown that the alkaloid can
ease drug addiction (to such drugs as heroin and cocaine) and make way for
a cure. Ibogaine calms the motor activity that is present when under the influ-
ence of an opiate. The chiropractor Karl Naeher says that “Ibogaine, when
taken in one high dose by an opiate addict, drastically reduces withdrawal
symptoms and, at the same time, causes a ‘trip’ that reveals such deep in-
sights into the personal causes of the addiction that the majority of those who
undergo this type of therapy can go for months without a relapse. But several
additional sessions are required before a lasting stabilization is evident.”
Research into the potential use of ibogaine as a treatment for substance
abuse is being carried out by Deborah Mash and her team in Miami.

113

Page 115 top: The seeds of the Iboga
hush can germinate only under particu-
lar conditions. They themselves contain
no active compounds.

Page 1 15 right: Music plays a central
role in the Bwiti cult. The harp player
not only allows the strings to resonate,
but also sings liturgies in which the
cosmology and worldview of the tribe
are expressed.

Top left: The typical leaves of the Iboga
bush.

Top right: A herbarium specimen of
Tabernanthe iboga in a comparative
botanical collection.

feel that their spiritual trip has taken
many hours or even days. The body is
seen as detached: one user reported,
“Here I am, and there is my body going
through its action.” Large doses induce
auditory, olfactory, and gustatory syn-
esthesia. Mood may vary greatly from
fear to euphoria.

An Englishman writing on Gabon
mentioned “Eroga” under “fetish plants”
as early as 1819. Describing it as a
“favorite but violent medicine,” he
undoubtedly saw it powdered and as-
sumed that it represented a charred
fungus. French and Belgian explorers
encountered this remarkable drug and
the cults using it a little over a century
ago. They stated that the drug greatly
increased muscular strength and endur-
ance and that it had aphrodisiac proper-
ties. An early report, in 1864, insisted
that Iboga is not toxic except in high
doses, that “warriors and hunters use it
constantly to keep themselves awake

description of the experiences of an in-
itiate under high dosage of the drug:
“Soon all his sinews stretch out in an
extraordinary fashion. An epileptic
madness seizes him, during which, un-
conscious, he mouths words which,
when heard by the initiated ones, have
a prophetic meaning and prove that the
fetish has entered him.”

Other plants of reputed narcotic
properties are involved in the Iboga

Above left and right: During the initiation
rilor, of the Bwiti cult, the novices ingest
exlrcmely high doses of the Iboga root
in order to attain contact with the an-
cestors during the powerful ritual.

during night watches . . .” In the 1880s,
the Germans met it in Cameroon
(northern Gabon), and in 1898 it was
reported that the root had an “exciting
effect on the nervous system so that its
use is highly valued on long, tiring
marches, on lengthy canoe voyages,
and on difficult night watches.”

The earliest report of its hallucino-
genic effects dates from 1903, with the

cults, sometimes used alone, sometimes
as admixtures with Tabernanthe iboga
itself. Cannabis saliva — known as Yarna
or Beyama — may often be smoked fol-
lowing ingestion of small doses of Ibo-
ga. In Gabon, Cannabis resin may on
occasion be eaten with Iboga. Alan, the
euphorbiaceous Alchornea flonbunda,
is often consumed in large amounts to
help produce the collapse experienced

114

in Bwiti initiations; in southern Gabon,
it is mixed with Iboga. Another euphor-
biaceous plant — Ayan-beyem or Elaeo-
phorbia drupifera — may be taken dur-
ing Bwiti initiations, when Alan is slow
to take effect; the latex is applied di-
rectly to the eyes with a parrot feather,
affecting the optical nerve and inducing
visions.

The Bwiti cult has been growing in
number of converts and in social
strength, not waning, in recent decades.
It represents a strong native element in a
changing society being rapidly engulfed
in foreign cultural influences. They con-
sider that the drug and its associated
cults enable them more easily to resist
the vertiginous transition from the indi-
vidualism of traditional tribal life to the
collectivism and loss of identity in the
encroaching Western civilization. It
may well offer the strongest single force
against the missionary spread of Chris-
tianity and Islam, since it unifies many
of the once hostile, warring tribes in re-
sistance to European innovations. As
one initiate stated: “Catholicism and
Protestantism is not our religion. I am
not happy in the mission churches.”

The cultural importance of the drug is
everywhere seen. The name Iboga is
used for the whole Bwiti cult; ndzi-
eboka (“eater of Iboga”) means a mem-
ber of the cult; nyiba-eboka signifies the
religion surrounding the narcotic plant.

iboga in every sense of the term is in-
deed a plant of the gods. It appears to be
here to stay in the native cultures of
west-central Africa.

115

5 =r R# BEANS OF THE HEKULA SPIRIT

Yopo

In the beginning, the Sun created various
beings to serve as intermediaries between
Him and Earth. He created hallucino-
genic snuff powder so that man could
contact supernatural beings. The Sun
had kept this powder in His navel, but
the Daughter of the Sun found it. Thus
it became available to man — a vegetal
product acquired directly from the gods.

center of use of this snuff is and prob-
ably always has been the Orinoco. The
West Indian tribes are thought to have
been, in the main, invaders from north-
ern South America. It is very probable
that the custom of snuffing the drug, as
well as the tree itself, was introduced by
invaders from the Orinoco area.

It is now suspected that Yopo was

Left: The beans of the Yopo Tree (Ana-
denanthera peregrina) are used by
many Indians as a shamanic snuff
(specimen collected in Guyana).

Right: Baron Alexander von Humboldt
and his co-collector Aime Bonpland
carefully explored the flora of the Orino-
co River, the frontier between Colombia
and Venezuela, and while there they
encountered the preparation and use of
Yopo snuff in 1801.

As far back as 1496, an early Spanish
report mentioned that the Taino of His-
paniola inhaled a powder called Cohoba
to communicate with the spirit world. It
was so strong that those who took it lost
consciousness; when the stupefying ac-
tion began to wane, the arms and legs
became loose and the head nodded, and
almost immediately they believed that
they saw the room turn upside-down so
that men were walking with their heads
downward. Mainly because of the dis-
appearance of aboriginal peoples in the
West Indies, this snuff is no longer em-
ployed anywhere in the Antilles.

In 1916, ethnobotanical research
established the identity of this Coho-
ba — quite generally until then thought
to have been a very potent kind of To-
bacco snuff — with the hallucinogenic
snuff of the Orinoco called Yopo and
derived from the beans of Anade-
nanthera peregrina, better known in the
literature as Piptadenia peregrina. The

used much more widely in earlier peri-
ods. There is evidence that in pre-
Hispanic times, this snuff was used by
Chibchan tribes from the Colombian
Andes east across the llanos, or plains,
to the upper Orinoco.

In 1560 a missionary in the Colom-
bian llanos wrote that the Indians along
the Rio Guaviare “are accustomed to
take Yopa and Tobacco, and the former
is a seed or pip of a tree . . . they become

116

Below left: The finely pinnate leaves of
the Yopo tree are important for identifi-
cation, but contain no active properties.

Right: In the open grasslands, or cam-
pos, of the northern Amazon of Brazil,
Anadenanthera grows profusely. The
tree bears long pods with usually six to
twelve seeds, which are the source of
the hallucinogenic snuff.

Below right: Over 1 25 years ago, the
English explorer Richard Spruce col-
lected on the Orinoco these artifacts
associated with the preparation and
use of Yopo snuff. They are still pre-
served in the museum at the Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew.

drowsy while the devil, in their dreams,
shows them all the vanities and corrup-
tions he wishes them to see and which
they take to be true revelations in which
they believe, even if told they will die.
This habit of taking Yopa and Tobacco
is general in the New Kingdom.” An-
other chronicler wrote in 1599: “They
chew Hayo or Coca and Jopa and

Tobacco . . . going out of their minds,
and then the devil speaks to them . . .
Jopa is a tree with small pods like those
of vetches, and the seeds inside are simi-
lar but smaller.” Yopo was so important
in pre-Conquest Colombia that Indians
of the highlands, where the tree will not
grow, traded the drug up from the tro-
pical lowlands: the Muisca of the
Colombian Andes, according to an
early Spanish historian, used the snuff:
“Jop: herb of divination, used by the
mojas or sun-priests. in Tunja and Bogo-
ta.” The Muisca “will not travel nor
wage war nor do any other thing of im-
portance without learning beforehand
what will be the outcome, or this they
try to ascertain with two herbs which
they consume, called Yop and Osca
Yopo snuff may sometimes, as among
the Guahibo, be taken daily as a stimu-
lant. But it is more commonly employed
by payes (shamans) to induce trances
and visions and communicate with the

The Chemistry of Yopo

The active principles of Anadenanthera peregrina belong to both open-
chained and ringed tryptamine derivatives and, therefore, to the important
class of indole alkaloids. Tryptamine is also the basic compound of the amino
acid tryptophane, widely distributed in the Animal Kingdom. Dimethyltrypta-
mine (DMT) and 5-hydroxydimethyltryptamine (bufotenine) are representa-
tives of the open-chained Anadenanthera tryptamines. Bufotenine has also
been found in the skin secretion of a toad ( Bufo sp.) — hence its name. Ringed
tryptamine derivatives found in Anadenanthera are 2-methyl- and 1,2-di-
methyl-6-methoxytetrahydro-p-carboline.

117

Drawings right (pages 1 18-19):
Countless artifacts related to the ritual
use of snuff have been discovered in
archaeological digs in the Caribbean
and in South America (for example,
Haiti, Costa Rica, Colombia, and
Brazil).

Photo sequence pages 118-19:
Undoubtedly the most intense Pse of
Yopo snuff prepared from Anade-
nanthera peregrina is found among the
various groups of Waika living in
southernmost Venezuela and adjacent
parts of northernmost Brazil. These
peoples consume enormous amounts
of the hallucinogenic powder, blowing it
forcefully into the nostrils through long
tubes made from the stems of
maranthaceous plants.

Before snuffing Yopo, the Waika sha-
mans gather and chant, invoking the
Hekula spirits with whom they will be
communicating during the ensuing
intoxication.

The snuff acts rapidly, causing first a
profuse flow of mucus from the nasal
passages and occasionally a notable
quivering of the muscles, especially in
the arms, and a contorted expression
on the face.

This period quickly gives way to one
in which the shamans begin to prance,
gesticulating and shrieking violently,
calling on the Hekula.

The expenditure of energy lasts from
half an hour to an hour; eventually, fully
spent, they fall into a trancelike stupor,
during which visions are experienced.

Hekula spirits; to prophesy or divine; to
protect the tribe against epidemics of
sickness; to make hunters and even their
dogs more alert. There has been a long
and complicated confusion between the
hallucinogenic snuff prepared from
Anadenanthera and that from Virola
and other plants. Consequently, the nu-
merous distribution maps in anthropo-
logical literature showing immense
areas of South American using Anade-
nanth era-derived snuff must be used
with due caution.

In 1741, the Jesuit missionary Gumil-
la, who wrote extensively on the geo-
graphy of the Orinoco, described the
use of Yopo by the Otomac: “They have
another abominable habit of intoxicat-
ing themselves through the nostrils with
certain malignant powders which they
call Yupa which quite takes away their
reason, and they will furiously take up
arms . . Following a description of the
preparation of the snuff and a custom of
adding lime from snail shells, he re-
ported that “before a battle, they would
throw themselves into a frenzy with
Yupa, wound themselves and, full of
blood and rage, go forth to battle like
rabid jaguars.”

The first scientific report of Yopo was
made by the explorer Baron von Hum-
boldt, who botanically identified the
source and reported that the Maypure
Indians of the Orinoco, where he wit-
nessed the preparation of the drug in

118

1801, broke the long pods, moistened
them, and allowed them to ferment;
when they turned black, the softened
beans were kneaded into cakes with cas-
sava flour and lime from snails. These
cakes were crushed to • make snuff.
Humboldt, quite erroneously, believed
that “it is not to be believed that the . . .
pods are the chief cause of the . . . effects
of the snuff . . . These effects are due to
the freshly calcined lime.”

Later, Spruce offered an extremely
detailed report on the preparation and
use of Yopo among the Guahibo of the
Orinoco. He collected a complete set of
ethnographic material connected with
the substance, and seeds that he col-
lected for chemical study in 1851 were
chemically analyzed only in 1977.

“A wandering horde of Guahibo In-
dians . . . was encamped on the savannas
of Maypures, and on a visit to their
camp I saw an old man grinding Niopo
seeds, and purchased of him his appara-
tus for making and taking the snuff . . .
The seeds, being first roasted, are pow-
dered on a wooden platter ... It is held
on the knees by a broad thin handle,
which is grasped in the left hand, while
the fingers of the right hold a small spa-
tula or pestle . . . with which the seeds
are crushed . . . The snuff is kept in a
mull made of a bit of the leg-bone of
the jaguar . . . For taking the snuff, they
use an apparatus made of the leg bones

of herons or other long-shanked birds
put together in the shape of the letter Y

A contemporary observer described
the effects of Yopo snuffing as follows:
“His eyes started from his head, his
mouth contracted, his limbs trembled.
It was fearful to see him. He was ob-
liged to sit down or he would have fall-
en. He was drunk but only for about
five minutes; he was then gayer.”

There is appreciable variation from
tribe to tribe and from one area to an-
other in the preparation of Yopo. The
seeds are usually toasted and pulver-
ized. Lime from snails or the ashes of
certain plants are normally added, but
some Indians use the snuff without this
alkaline admixture. It appears that other
plant admixtures are never employed
with Anadenanthera snuff.

Anadenanthera peregrina occurs na-
turally and sometimes apparently culti-
vated in the plains or grassland areas of
the Orinoco basin of Colombia and Ve-
nezuela, in light forests in southern
British Guyana, and in the Rio Branco
area of the northern Amazonia of Bra-
zil. It may occur also in isolated savanna
areas in the Rio Medeira region. When it
is found elsewhere, it may probably
have been introduced by Indians. There
is evidence that, a century ago, it was
cultivated in more localities outside of
its natural range than at present.

119

a ANADENANTHERA
COLUBRINA
Cebfl

SEEDS OF CIVILIZATION

Above from left to right: The Mataco use
a decoction of fresh (still green) Cebfl
pods as a head wash for headaches.

Cebfl, the “Seeds of Civilization”
(seeds of the Anadenanthera colubri-
na). Bufotenine is the main active con-
stituent.

The ripe seed pods of the Cebfl tree
(Anadenanthera colubrina var. cebil)
collect underneath the leaf canopy.

The knotty bark of the Argentinian Cebfl
tree (Anadenanthera colubrina bvar.
cebil).

Page 121: The Cebfl tree (Anade-
nanthera colubrinavar. cebil) with ripe
seed pods.

In the Atacama Desert of northern
Chile there is an oasis called San Pedro
de Atacama. The art historian and ar-
chaeologist C. Manuel Torres excavated
and studied over six hundred prehisto-
ric graves there. The results were aston-
ishing. Nearly every interred person
was accompanied for the last journey
by numerous tools dedicated to the ri-
tual sniffing of Cebil.

The name Cebil designates a tree
(Anadenanthera colubrina ) as well as
its seeds, which can induce a strong psy-
choactive effect.

In the Puna region of northwest Ar-
gentina is the oldest archaeological
proof of the ritual or shamanic use of
Cebil. They have been smoked there
for over 4,500 years. Numerous ceramic
pipes have been discovered in certain
caves of this region. Occasionally the

The Chemistry of Anadenanthera colubrina

Some varieties of Cebfl seed contain exclusively bufotenin (C 12 H 16 ON 2 ) as
the psychoactive ingredient. In tests of other seeds, 5-MeO-MMT, DMT, DMT-
A/-oxide, bufotenin, and 5-OH-DMT-A(-oxide were found. Old tests of the
seeds contained 15 mg/g of bufotenin.

In the dried seeds from the trees of northeast Argentina (Salta), there has
been found mostly bufotenin (more than 4%), and a related substance (per-
haps serotonin), but otherwise no other tryptamines or alkaloids. In tests of
other seeds taken from the garden of a Mataco shaman, 12% bufotenin con-
tent was found. The ripe pods of the fruit also contain some bufotenin.

bowls of the pipe still contain Cebil
seeds. The psychoactive use seems in
particular to have influenced the culture
of Tiahuanaco (literally, “City of the
Gods”). The Tiahuanaco culture is the
“mother” of Andean civilizations. All
subsequent high cultures of the region
have been influenced by it.

Many examples of pre-Columbian
snuff paraphernalia (snuff tablets, snuff
pipes) displaying the iconography of the
Tiahuanaco culture have been found in
Puna and the Atacama Desert. They ap-
pear to be significantly inspired by the
visions of the Cebil seeds.

The use of Cebil as a snuff powder in
the southern Andean region is first
mentioned in 1580 by the Spanish
chronicler Cristobal de Albornoz in his
work Relacion. A psychoactive sub-
stance cited in sources from colonial
times called Villca is possibly identical
to Cebil.

The shamans of the Wichi (Mataco
Indians) of northwest Argentina still
use a snuff made of Cebil today. The
shamans of the Mataco smoke the
dried or roasted seeds, preferably in a
pipe or rolled in a cigarette. The Cebil
seeds are for them a means to enter
and influence another reality. Cebil is,
in a manner of speaking, a gateway to
a visionary world; this is how the sha-
man Fortunato Ruiz expresses it. He
smokes the seeds with tobacco and Ar-
omo — just as his ancestors did five
thousand years ago. This makes the

120

Below: The German artist Nana Nauwald de-
picted her experience with Cebfl seeds in a
painting in 1996. The picture bears the title
“Nothing is separate from me” and shows the
typical “worm-like” visions.

Right: Recently it was reported that the Mataco
in northern Argentina smoke and sniff Anade-
nanthera colubrina. With this, the Spaniards’
assumption, that the snuffs Cebfl and Villca are
made from this plant, is confirmed.

What Was Villca?

In the colonial literature of New Spain, there are numerous references to the
psychoactive use of certain seeds or fruits that were known variously as
Huilca, Huillca, Vilca, Vilcas, Villca, Wil’ka, Willca, or Willka. The ethnohistori-
cally documented villca (fruit) is today known as the seed of Anadenanthera
colubrina. Villca was of great ritual and religious significance in Peru in the
time before the arrival of the Spaniards, and was known to the Incan high
priests and soothsayers (umu) as Villca or Villca camayo. A holy Indian relic
(huaca) was known as Villca or Vilcacona and an especially holy mountain is
known as Villca Coto. On the peak of Villca Coto, it is said that a couple of
humans saved themselves during the primeval deluge.

Villca seeds had a ceremonial significance for the Incas as a psychoactive
subsitute for beer. The “juice” of Villca was added to a fermented corn bev-
erage and taken by the soothsayer, who would then be able to look into the
future.

Villca was also the name for enemas, which were used for medicinal or
shamanic purposes. - .

northwest of Argentina the place with
the longest uninterrupted ritualistic or
shamanic use of psychoactive sub-
stances in the world.

As some Matacos have converted to
Christianity in recent years, they have
come to identify Cebil with the biblical
Tree of Knowledge. But they do not see
Cebil as a “forbidden fruit”; rather, they
see it as the fruit of a holy tree, which is
used by shamans for healing.

The hallucinations triggered by Cebfl
seem to have been very influential in
the iconography of the so-called Tia-
huanaco Style. The iconography of ar-
tist Chavfn de Huantar is full of similar
motifs: intertwined snakes coming out
of the head of the oracle god are clearly
Cebfl hallucinations.

The vision-inducing effects of Cebfl
snuff last for roughly twenty minutes
and include strong hallucinations,
which are often only black and white,
and seldom in color. They are not (or
are only very rarely) geometric in nat-
ure, but are strongly flowing and “de-
centralized.” They are very reminiscent
of the images produced by the pre-
Columbian Tiahuanaco culture.

Cebil seeds also have psychoactive ef-
fects if they are smoked. The effects are
very strong for about thirty minutes and
then fade away. The effects begin with a
feeling of heaviness in the body. After
five to ten minutes, visual hallucinations
begin with the eyes closed, often featur-
ing worm- and snakelike images flowing
into one another. Sometimes geometric,
symmetrical, or crystallographic hallu-
cinations can occur, but very seldom are
there any strong visions of a realistic
nature (such as the experience of flying,
traveling in another world, transforming
into an animal, contact with helping
spirits, and so on).

122

Above: The northwest Argentinian
region of Puna is the area in which the
longest continued use of visionary and
shamanic plants can be proved. In this
region the Cebil seeds have been
smoked or sniffed for 4,500 years for
healing ceremonies.

Left: The painting (oil on canvas, 1996)
by the Columbian-American artist
Donna Torres shows the study of an
ethnobotanist who is researching
Anadenanthera colubrina.

Far left: Pre-Columbian snuff tools from
a grave at San Pedro de Atacama.

Left: Pre-Columbian snuff vessel made
from a carved bone (San Pedro de
Atacama, Chile).

BANISTERIOPSIS

Ayahuasca

on PSYCHOTRIA
Chacruna

An PEGANUM
Syrian Rue

OQ TETRAPTERIS
^ Yage

THE MAGIC DRINK
OF THE AMAZON

There is a magic intoxicant in northwes-
ternmost South America that the In-
dians believe can free the soul from
corporeal confinement, allowing it to
wander free and return to the body at
will. The soul, thus untrammeled, liber-
ates its owner from the realities of
everyday life and introduces him to
wondrous realms of what he considers
reality and permits him to communicate
with his ancestors. The Quechua term
for this inebriating drink- — Ayahuasca
(“vine of the soul”) — refers to this free-
ing of the spirit. The plants involved are
truly plants of the gods, for their power
is laid to supernatural forces residing in
their tissues, and they were divine gifts
to the earliest Indians on earth.

Ayahuasca has many native names:
Caapi, Dapa, Mihi, Kahi, Natema,
Pmde, Yaje. The drink, employed for
prophecy, divination, sorcery, and med-
ical purposes, is so deeply rooted in na-
tive mythology and philosophy that
there can be no doubt of its great age as
a part of aboriginal life.

Iwo closely related species of the
malpighiaceous genus Banisteriopsis —
B. caapi and B. inebrians — are the most
important plants used in preparing Aya-
huasca. But other species are apparently
used locally on occasion: B. qmtensis;
Mascagnia glandulifera , M. psilophylla
var. antife bnlis; Tetrapteris methystica
and T. mucronata. All of these plants
are large forest lianas of the same family.
Banisteriopsis caapi and B. inebrians are
frequently cultivated in order to have a
supply close at hand for use.

Many plants of diverse families are of-
ten added to the basic drink to alter the
intoxicating effects. The most com-
monly used admixtures are leaves of
Diplopterys cabrerana and of the rubiac-
eous Psychotna earth agin ensis or P. vir-
idis. Other known psychoactive plants,
such as Brugmansia suaveolens , Brun-
felsia chincaspi, and B. grandiflora, may
also be added. Among the many plants
employed are Tobacco; Malouetia
tamaquanna and a species of Tabernac-
montana of the Apocynaceae; the acan-
thaceous Tehostachya lanceolata var.
crispa or Toe negra; Calathea veitchiana

of the Maranthaceae; the amaranthac-
eous Alternanthera lehmannu and a spe-
cies of Iresine; several ferns mcludm
Lygodmm venustum and Lomariopsi
japurensis; Pbiygylanthus eugemoides
of the Misteltoe family; the American
Basil Ocimum micranthum; a species of
the sedge genus Cyperus; several cacti
including species of Opuntia and Epi-
pbyllum; and members of the families
Clusiaceae and Guttiferae.

The natives often have special names
for diverse “kinds” of Ayahuasca, al-
though the botanist frequently finds
them all representative of the same spe-
cies. It is usually difficult to understand
the aboriginal method of classification;
some may be age forms; others may come
from different parts of the liana; still
others may be ecological forms growing
under varying conditions of soil, shade,
moisture, and so on. The natives assert
that these “kinds” have a variety of ef-
fects, and it is conceivable that they may
actually have different chemical compo-
sitions. This possibility is one of the least
investigated yet most significant aspects
in the study of Ayahuasca.

Among the Tukano of the Colombia
Vaupes, for example, six “kinds” of
Ayahuasca or Kahi are recognized. Bo-
tanical identification has not yet been
possible in all cases, but the “kinds”
have definite native names. Kahi-riama,
the strongest, produces auditory hallu-
cinations and announces future events.
It is said to cause death if improperly
employed. The second strongest, Me-
ne-kahf-ma, reputedly causes visions of
green snakes. The bark is used, and it is
also said to cause death, unless cau-
tiously taken. These two “kinds” may
not belong to Banisteriopsis or even to
the family Malpighiaceae.

The third in strength is called Suana-
Kahi-ma (“Kahi of the red jaguar”),
producing visions in red. Kahf-vaf
Bucura-rijoma (“Kahi of the monkey
head”) causes monkeys to hallucinate
and howl. The weakest of the hallucino-
genic “kinds” of Kahi or Ajuwri-kahi-ma
has little effect but is used in the drink
to help the Mene-Kahi-ma. All of these
“kinds” are referable probably to Banis-

124

6 x>.

Top: The Chacruna shrub (Psychotria
viridis) is the second most important
ingredient in the Ayahuasca drink.

Above right: The shoots of the Aya-
huasca liana.

Left: A Shipibo Indian with an
Ayahuasca liana that he has cultivated
in his garden.

Page 124 above: The Ayahuasca liana
(Banisteriopsis caapi) is a powerful and
vigorously growing tropical vine.

Page 124 below: The pieces of
branch are the base of the Ayahuasca
preparation.

125

“Ayahuasca, medicine, enrapture me fully!

Help me by opening your beautiful world to me!

You also are created by the god who created man!

Reveal to me completely your medicine worlds. I shall heal the sick bodies:
These sick children and this sick woman shall I heal by making everything good!”

— Ayahuasca Song of the Shipibo

Above left: The British plant explorer
Spruce collected the first botanical spe-
cimens of Banisteriopsis caapi in 1851 .
He sent material from the same plant for
chemical analysis. The material was lo-
cated in the Museum at the Royal Bota-
nic Gardens at Kew in 1 969.

Above right: Among the Kofan of Co-
lombia and Ecuador, special medicine
men prepare Curare and Yaje. There is
an association between these two plant
products, and Yaje is taken before hunt-
ing in the belief that the visions will re-
veal the hiding places of the animals to
be sought,

Far right: To make Ayahuasca or Caapi,
the freshly stripped bark must be vigor-
ously pounded before being boiled in
water or kneaded thoroughly in cold
water.

Page 127 left: The numerous Tukanoan
tribes of the Vaupes River basin in Co-
lombia and Brazil practice a male-
oriented ancestor ceremony. The
Yurupari dance, in which Caapi is a
major element, enables the participants
to communicate with spirits of the dead.

Page 127 right: Line dancing with intri-
cate steps and gourd rattles accompa-
nying chants is typical of Barasana
ceremonies in which Caapi is taken,
Piraparana River.

teriopsis caapi. Kahf-somoma or Kahf-
uco (“Kahi that makes you vomit”), a
shrub, the leaves of which are added to
the drink, an emetic agent, is undoubt-
edly Diplopterys cabrerana , the same
plant known among the western Tu-
kanoan Siona of the Colombian Putu-
mayo as Oco-yaje.

Although not so famous as Peyote or
the sacred Mexican mushrooms, Aya-
huasca has received popular attention
because of news articles extolling the
so-called telepathic powers of the drink.
In fact, in the chemical investigation of
Banisteriopsis, the first alkaloid isolated
was named telepathine.

The hallucinogen may be prepared in
diverse ways. Usually, bark is scraped
from freshly harvested pieces of the
stem. In the western areas, the bark is
boiled for several hours, and the bitter,
thick liquid is taken in small doses. In
other localities, the bark is pulverized
and then kneaded in cold water; much
larger doses must be taken, since it is
less concentrated.

The effects of the drink vary accord-
ing to the method of preparation, the
setting in which it is taken, the amount
ingested, the number and kinds of ad-
mixtures, and the purposes for which it
is used, as well as the ceremonial control
exercised by the shaman.

Ingestion of Ayahuasca usually in-
duces nausea, dizziness, vomiting, and
leads to either a euphoric or an aggressive

state. Frequently the Indian sees over-
powering attacks of huge snakes or ja-
guars. These animals often humiliate him
because he is a mere man. The repetitive-
ness with which snakes and jaguars occur
in Ayahuasca visions has intrigued psy-
chologists. It is understandable that these
animals play such a role, since they are the
only beings respected and feared by the
Indians of the tropical forest; because of
their power and stealth, they have as-
sumed a place of primacy in aboriginal
religious beliefs. In many tribes, the sha-
man becomes afeline during the intoxica-
tion, exercising his powers as a wild cat.
Yekwana medicine men mimic the roars
of jaguars. Tukano Ayahuasca-takers
may experience nightmares of jaguar jaws
swallowing them or huge snakes ap-
proaching and coiling about their bodies.
Snakes in bright colors climb up and
down the house posts. Shamans of the
Conibo-Shipibo tribe acquire great
snakes as personal possessions to defend
themselves in supernatural battles against
other powerful shamans.

The drug may be the shaman’s tool to
diagnose illness or to ward off impend-
ing disaster, to guess the wiles of an en-
emy, to prophesy the future. But it is
more than the shaman’s tool. It enters
into almost all aspects of the life of the
people who use it, to an extent equaled
by hardly any other hallucinogen. Par-
takers, shamans or not, see all the gods,
the first human beings, and animals, and

126

come to understand the establishment
of their social order.

Ayahuasca is, above all, a medicine —
the great medicine. The Ayahuasca lea-
der among the Campa of Peru is a reli-
gious practitioner who, following a
strict apprenticeship, maintains and in-
creases his shamanistic power through
the use of Tobacco and Ayahuasca.
The Campa shaman under Ayahuasca
acquires an eerie, distant voice and a
quivering jaw that indicates the arrival
of good spirits who, splendidly clad,
sing and dance before him; the sha-
man’s singing is merely his own voice
echoing their song. During the singing,
his soul may travel far and wide— a
phenomenon not interfering with per-
formance of the ceremony nor with
the shaman’s ability to communicate
the wishes of the spirits to participants.

Among the Tukano, the partaker of
the drug feels himself pulled along by
powerful winds that the leading shaman
explains as a trip to the Milky Way, the
first stop on the way to heaven. Simi-
larly, the Ecuadorean Zaparo experience
a sensation of being lifted into the air.
The souls of Peruvian Conibo-Shipibo
shamans fly about in the form of a bird;
or shamans may travel in a supernatural
canoe manned by demons to reconquer
lost or stolen souls.

The effects of the drink are greatly al-
tered when leaves of Diploterys cabrer-
ana or of Psychotria are added. The

The Chemistry of Ayahuasca

In the belief that they were new discoveries, the first alkaloids isolated from
Banisteriopsis were called telepathine and banisterine. Further chemical in-
vestigations revealed that these preparations were identical with the alkaloid
harmine, previously isolated from Syrian Rue, Peganum harmala. Further-
more, the secondary alkaloids of Paganum, harmaline and tetrahydrohar-
mine, also occur in Banisteriopsis. The active principles are indole alkaloids
found in several other hallucinogenic plants.

The drink made from Ayahuasca is a unique pharmacological combination
of Banisteriopsis caapi, a liana that contains harmaline, and Chacruna (Psy-
chotria viridia) leaves, which contain DMT. Flarmaline is an MAO inhibitor; it
reduces the body’s production and distribution of monoamine oxidase (MAO).
MAO normally breaks down the vision-inducing ingredient DMT before it can
cross the blood-brain barrier into the central nervous system. Only with this
combination of ingredients can the drink have its consciousness-expanding
effects and trigger visions.

Plants Containing the MAO-Inhibiting |3-Carboline Alkaloids:

Banisteriopsis spp.

Kochia scoparia (L.) SCHRAD.
Passiflora involucrata
Passiflora spp.

Peganum harmala L.

Strychnos usambarensis GILG
Tribulus terrestris L.

Harmine

Harmine, Harmane
(3-Carboline

Harmine, Harmane, etc.

Harmine, Tetrahydroharmine,
Dihydroharmaline, Harmane, Isohar-
mine, Tetrahydroharmol, Harmalol,
Harmol. Norharmine,

Harmaline

Harmane

Harmine, among others

127

“Practically all decorative
elements . . . are said . . .

to be derived from
hallucinatory imagery . . .

The most outstanding
examples are the paintings
executed on the front walls of
the malocas . . . sometimes . . .
representing the Lord of
Game Animals . . .

When asked about these
paintings, the Indians simply
reply: ‘This is what we see
when we drink Yaje . .

— G. Reichel-Dolmatoff

128

tryptamines in these additives are be-
lieved to be inactive when taken orally,
unless monoamine oxidase inhibitors
are present. The harmine and its deriva-
tives in B. caapi and B. inebrians are in-
hibitors of this kind, potentiating the
tryptamines. Both types of alkaloids,
however, are hallucinogenic.

Length and vividness of the visual hal-
lucinations are notably enhanced when
these additives are present. Whereas
visions with the basic drink are seen
usually in blue, purple, or gray, those
induced when the tryptaminic additives
are used may be brightly colored in reds
and yellows.

The Ayahuasca intoxication may be a
very intense experience with visions of
light setting in with the eyes closed after
a period of giddiness, nervousness, pro-
fuse sweating, and sometimes nausea. A|
period of lassitude initiates the play of
colors — at first white, then mainly a hazy,
smoky blue that later increases in inten-
sity; eventually sleep, interrupted by
dreams and occasional feverishness, takes
over. Serious diarrhea, which continues
after the intoxication, is the uncomforta-
ble effect most frequently experienced.
With the tryptaminic additives, many of
these effects are intensified, but trembling
and convulsive shaking, mydriasis, and
increase of pulse rate are also noted.
Frequently, a show of recklessness, some-
times even aggressiveness, marks ad-
vanced states of the inebriation.

The famous Yuruparf ceremony of the
Tukanoans is an ancestor-communication
ritual, the basis of a man's tribal society
and an adolescent male initiation rite. Its
sacred bark trumpet, which calls the Yur-
uparf spirit, is taboo to the sight of wo-
men; it symbolizes the forces to whom
the ceremony is holy, favorably influen-
cing fertility spirits, effecting cures of pre-
valent illnesses, and improving the male
prestige and power over women. The
Yuruparf ceremony is now little practiced.
One of the most detailed reports of a re-
cent dance describes it as follows:

“A deep booming of drums from
within the maloca heralded the appear-
ance of the mystic Yuruparf horns. With
only very slight urging from one of the

older men, all females from babes in arms
to withered, toothless hags betook them-
selves to the fringing forest, to hear only
from afar the deep, mysterious notes of
the trumpets, sight of which is believed
to spell certain death for any woman . . .
Payes shamans and older men are not
above aiding the workings of the mys-
tery by the judicious administration of
poison to any overcurious female.

“Four pairs of horns had been taken
from places of concealment, and the
players now ranged themselves in a
rough semi-circle, producing the first
deep, lugubrious notes . . .

“Many of the older men had mean-
while opened their tangatara boxes of
ceremonial feathers and were selecting
wijT great care brilliant feather ruffs,
VlfiSh were bound to the mid-section
IgfjJjSe longer horns . . .

/ >ijOur oldsters, with perfect rhythm
any^dramatic timing, paraded through
the maloca, blowing the newly decorated
horns, advancing and retreating with
short dancing steps. At intervals, a couple
danced out of the door, their horns raised
high, and returned after a brief turn, the
expanding and contracting feather ruffs
producing a beautiful burst of translu-
cent color against the stronger light.
Younger men were beginning the first of
the savage whippings, and the master of
ceremonies appeared with the red, cur-
iously shaped clay jar containing the
powerful narcodc drink called Caapi.
The thick, brown, bitter liquid was
served in pairs of tiny round gourds;
many drinkers promptly vomited . . .

“Whipping proceeded by pairs. The
first lashes were applied to the legs and
ankles, the whip flung far back in a de-
liberately calculated dramatic gesture;
the blows resounded like pistol shots.
Places were immediately exchanged.
Soon the whips were being freely ap-
plied, and all the younger men were
laced with bloody welts on all parts of
the body. Tiny lads not more than six or
seven years old would catch up the
abandoned whips, merrily imitating
their elders. Gradually the volume of
sound diminished, until only two lone
performers remained, enchanted with

Top: Many species of Passion flower
( Passiflora spp.) contain the active sub-
stances harmine and harmaline.

Above right: Syrian Rue (Peganum
harmala) with fruit capsules.

Page 128 above: The mural in the
Cuzco Airport (Peru) reveals the
visionary world of Ayahuasca.

Page 128 below: Shipibo Indians in
traditional costumes decorated with
Ayahuasca patterns (Yarinacocha,
Peru).

129

Left: A beer mug of the Conibo-Shipibo
Indians that has been completely
painted with the Ayahuasca pattern.

Right: Shipibo women communally
paint a ceramic with Ayahuasca pat-
terns.

their art, bowing, advancing, and re-
treating, with great delicacy and grace
in the center of the maloca. About a
dozen of the older men were outfitting
themselves with their finest diadems of
resplendent guacamayo feathers, tall,
feathery egret plumes, oval pieces of
the russet skin of the howler monkey,
armadillo-hide disks, prized loops of
monkey-hair cord, precious quartzite
cylinders, and jaguar-tooth belts. Be-
decked with these triumphs of savage
art, the men formed a swaying, dancing
semi-circle, each with his right hand
resting on his neighbor’s shoulder, all
shifting and stamping in slow unison.

Leading the group was the ancient paye,
blowing Tobacco smoke in benediction
on his companions from the huge cigar
in its engraved ceremonial fork, while
his long, polished rattle-lance vibrated
constantly. The familiar, dignified Ca-
chin' ceremonial chant was intoned by
the group; their deep voices rose and
fell, mingling with the mysterious
booming tones of the Yuruparf horns.”
The Tukano believe that when, at the
time of creation, humans arrived to po-
pulate the Vaupes region, many extraor-
dinary happenings took place. People
had to endure hardship before settling
the new regions. Hideous snakes and

130

dangerous fish lived in the rivers; there
were spirits with cannibalistic procliv-
ities; and the Tukano received in trepida-
tion the basic elements of their culture.

There lived among these early Tukano
a woman — the first woman of crea-
tion — who “drowned” men in visions.
Tukanoans believe that during coitus, a
man “drowns” — the equivalent of see-
ing visions. The first woman found

the sensual, to a mystical union with the
mythic era, the intrauterine stage, is the
ultimate goal, attained by a mere hand-
ful but coveted by all.”

All or much of Indian art, it has been
proposed, is based on visionary experi-
ence. Colors, similarly, are symbolically
significant: yellow or off-white has a
seminal concept, indicating solar fertili-
zation; red — color of the uterus, fire,

Above: Many species of the genus 8a-
nisteriopsis, like this 8. muricata from
southern Mexico, are rich in MAO-
inhibiting |3-carbolines. Because of this,
they are particularly suited in the
preparation of Ayahuasca analogs.

herself with child. The Sun-father had
impregnated her through the eye. She
gave birth to a child who became Caapi,
the narcotic plant. The child was born
during a brilliant flash of light. The wo-
man — Yaje — cut the umbilical cord and,
rubbing the child with magical plants,
shaped its body. The Caapi-child lived
to be an old man zealously guarding his
hallucinogenic powers. From this aged
child, owner of Caapi or the sexual act,
the Tukanoan men received semen. For
the Indians, wrote Gerardo Reichel-
Dolmatoff, “the hallucinatory experi-
ence is essentially a sexual one ... to
make it sublime, to pass from the erotic,

heat — symbolizes female fecundity;
blue represents thought through To-
bacco smoke. These colors accompany
Ayahuasca intoxications and have pre-
cise interpretations. Many of the com-
plicated rock engravings in the river
valleys of the Vaupes region are
undoubtedly based upon drug ex-
periences. Likewise, the stereotyped
paintings on the bark wall of Tukanoan
communal houses represent themes
from Ayahuasca hallucinations.

Pictures and decorations on pots,
houses, basketry, and other household
objects fall into two categories: ab-
stract design and figurative motifs.

Above left: A Shipibo woman paints
a piece of fabric with her traditional
Ayahuasca pattern.

Above right: The jungle pharmacy of the
Shipibo Indians. Countless medicinal
plants are taken with Ayahuasca, which
strengthen the effects.

“The caji plants
(Ayahuasca) reveal them-
selves to the experiencer,
it grows, becomes green,
blooms, and ultimately
vanishes. The moment of
the blossoming is valued
as the apex
of the experience.”

— Florian Deltgen (1993)

The Indians know the difference be-
tween the two and say that it is due to
Caapi intoxication. “Someone watching
a man at work or finding a drawing
would say: ‘This is what one sees after
three cups of Yaje,’ occasionally speci-
fying the kind of plant that had been
used and thus giving an indication of
the nature of the narcotic effects they
attributed to different concoctions,”
speculated G. Reichel-Dolmatoff.

It would seem that such an important
drug would have attracted the attention
of Europeans at a very early date. Such
was not the case. In 1851, however, the
English botanist Spruce, who was col-
lecting among Tukanoan tribes in the

Above: A Barasana Indian traces in
sand near his maloca patterns seen
during the course of Caapi intoxication.
It has been suggested that many of the
design motifs induced by Caapi are, on
the one hand, culture-bound and, on the
other hand, controlled by specific bio-
chemical effects of the active principles
in the plant

Rio Vaupes region of Brazil, met with
Caapi and sent material for chemical
study to England. Three years later, he
observed Caapi use again among the
Guahibo Indians along the upper

Orinoco. Later, he encountered Aya-
huasca among the Zaparo of Ecuador
and identified it as the same hallucino-
gen as Caapi.

“In the course of the night,” Spruce
wrote of Caapi, “the young men par-
took of Caapi five or six times, in the
intervals between the dances; but only
a few of them at a time, and a very few
drank of it twice. The cup-bearer — who
must be a man, for no woman can touch
or taste Caapi — starts at a short run
from the opposite end of the house,
with a small calabash containing about
a teacupful of Caapi in each hand, mut-
tering ‘Mo-mo-mo-mo-mo’ as he runs,
and gradually sinking down until at last
his chin nearly touches his knees, when
he reaches out one of his cups to the
man who stands ready to receive it . . .
In two minutes or less after drinking it,
the effects begin to be apparent. The In-
dian turns deadly pale, trembles in
every limb, and horror is in his aspect.
Suddenly contrary symptoms succeed;
he bursts into perspiration and seems
possessed with reckless fury, seizes
whatever arms are at hand . . . and
rushes to the door, while he inflicts vio-
lent blows on the ground and door-
posts, calling out all the while: ‘Thus
would I do to mine enemy [naming
him by name] were this he!’ In about
ten minutes, the excitement has passed
off, and the Indian grows calm but ap-
pears exhausted.”

Since Spruce’s time, this drug has
been mentioned often by many travelers
and explorers, but little has been accom-
plished until recently,. In fact, it was not
until 1969 that, chemical analysis of
Spruce’s material, collected for such ex-
amination in 1851, was carried out.

Much remains to be learned about
Ayahuasca, Caapi, Yaje. There is little
time before increasing acculturation
and even extinction of whole tribes will
make it forever impossible to learn
about these age-old beliefs and uses.

132

Left' This beautiful engraving on a gran-
ite rock at Nyi on the lower Piraparana
River in Colombia is obviouslyancient.
The rapids at this point on the river are
at the earth’s equator, a zone vertically
related to the rising and setting constel-
lations. It has been suggested that this
turbulent area of the river was the place
where the Sun Father married Earth
Mother to create the first Tukanoans.
The Indians interpret the triangular face
as a vagina and the stylized human
figure as a winged phallus.

Above: The talented Peruvian artist
Yando, the son of an Ayahuasquero
from Pucallpa, drew this Ayahuasca vi-
sion. Notice that the complexities of the
hallucinations are treated in an imagery
in which microscopic and macroscopic
dimensions are skillfully blended.

y a.

Right Young cultiv
(Psyclmlria viridis)

Ayahuasca Ingredients

A selection of plants used in the preparation of the Ayahuasca drink to give it its desired
healing powers or specific qualities:

Ai euro

Euphorbia sp.

for better singing

Capsicum frutescens

Amacisa

Erythrina spp.

purgative

Angel’s Trumpet Brugmansia spp.

to treat delusions,

illnesses caused by magic arrows

(chonteado),

and enchantment

Couroupita guianensis strengthens the body

Batsikawa

Psychotria sp.

for cooling and reduction of visions

Guatillo

lochroma fuchsioides

strengthens the vision

Guayusa

Ilex guayusa

for purification and treatment
of vomiting

Alchornea castanaefolia to treat diarrhea

Sab ice a amazonensis

'sweetens” the Ayahuasca drink

Ceiba pentandra

diarrhea, intestinal problems

Chorisia inslgnis

to treat intestinal problems

Pulma

Calathea veitchiana

to stimulate visions

Above: Farmer’s tnbacco (Nicoliana
m::lica) is one of tin- most important
-.human plants in South America.

Lygodium venustum

to strengthen the Ayahuasca drink

I’mllom: I he truit ol n ;;pecies of Theve -
ihi called Cabalong.i Nanca is added to
Ayahuasca to protect the drinker from
malicious spirits.

Cabalonga

Thevetia sp.

protects against spirits

Catahua

Hura crepitans

purgative

Cat’s claw

Uncaria tomentosa

strengthens;
used to treat allergies,
kidney problems, stomach ulcer,
venereal disease

Cniricaspi

Brunfelsia spp.

for fever, rheumatism, and arthritis

Cuchura-caspi

Malouetia tamaquarina

to enable a better diagnosis

Cumala

Virola spp.

strengthens the vision

Remo caspi

Pithecellobium laetum

strengthens the Ayahuasca drink

Sanango

Tabernaemontana sananho

poor memory;

for spiritual development;

arthritis, rheumatism

Sucuba

Himatanthus sucuuba

to extract magic arrows

Tobacco

Nicotiana rustica

for poisoning

Toe

Ipomoea carnea

strengthens the vision

Pfaffia

Pfaffia iresinoides

sexual weakness

Pichana

Ocimum micranthum

fever

Piri piri

Cyperus sp

fright; promotes spiritual
development; for abortions

7: The Chiricaspi bush (Brunfelsia
grandillora spp. schultesii) is an impor-
tant shaman plant in the northern
regions of South America.

2: Cat's Claw ( Uncaria tomentosa) is
one of the important medicinal plants for
treating chronic illnesses among the
Peruvian Indians.

3: For many Indians, the Kapok tree
(Ceiba pentandra) is the world tree.

4: The bindweed Ipomea carnea con-
tains potent psychoactive alkaloids and
is used in the Peruvian Amazon basin
as an ingredient in Ayahuasca.

5: The Sanango leaves (Tabernaemon-
tana sananho) strengthen the memory.

6: The Palo de Borracho “tree of drun-
kenness” (Chorisia insignis) is a world
tree in the cosmology of the shaman. Its
astringent bark is added to Ayahuasca.

7: A leaf cutting from Psychotria viridis
(grown in California).

135

AYAHUASCA ANALOGS

The pharmacological agent that has
been identified in Ayahuasca can be imi-
tated in plants with similar active ingre-
dients (harrUaline/harmine, DMT/5-
MeO-DMT). Nontraditional combina-
tions of plants with these ingredients are
today known as “Ayahuasca analogs”
or Anahuasca. Combinations made of
the isolated of synthesized ingredients
are called “pharmahuasca.”

Jonathan Ott, a chemist specializing
in natural substances, writes: “Psycho-
nautic pharmahuasca research is so dis-
tant from the scientific mainstream that
it took nearly three decades of no one
supporting, or independent scientists
doing ‘underground’ research before
the enzyme inhibitor theory of Aya-
huasca pharmacology was put to the
test. Paradoxically, this research can
rightfully claim that is stands exactly in
the center of the research on the bio-
chemistry of consciousness and the ge-
netics of pathological brain functions!

. . . Ayahuasca research is not just on
the vertex of neuro-scientific research,
but it is possible that the reversible
MAO-inhibiting effects of Ayahuasca
Could present a practical, less toxic alter-
native to the harmful substances that are
finding medical uses!”

The value of these Ayahuasca analogs
lies in the entheogenic effects that lead
to a deeper spiritual ecology and an
all-encompassing mystical insight. Aya-
huasca and its analogs bring about — but
only with the right dosage — a shamanic
ecstasy:

“Shamanic ecstasy is the true ancient
religion, of which modern churches are
merely pale imitations. Our ancestors
discovered in many places, and at many
times, that suffering humanity could
find in ecstatic entheogenic experiences
the reconciliation between the cultiva-
ted intelligence that separates each hu-
man being from other creatures and
even from other humans, and the wild,
untamed, magnificent animal physical-

ity that we all possess ... It is not
necessary to have faith because the ec-
static experience in and of itself gives
one the belief in the true unity and in-
tegrity of the universe, and in ourselves
as an integral part of the whole. Ecstatic
experience is what reveals to us the
sublime grandeur of our universe and
the fluctuating, shimmering alchemical
wonder that constitutes our everyday
consciousness. Entheogens such as
Ayahuasca could be the appropriate
medicine for hypermaterialistic human-
ity on the threshold of the new millen-
nium, where it will be decided if our
way will be continuing to grow and
progress or if we will be destroyed in a
massive biological holocaust unparal-
leled by anything that has happened in
our realm in the last 65 million years . . .
The entheogenic reformation is our
greatest hope for healing our dear
Mother Gaia, because it is bringing
about a true religious revival that will
help to bring in the new millennium.”

All formulas for Ayahuasca analogs
must contain an MAO inhibitor and a
DMT supplier.

Until now, most experiments have
been with Banisteriopsis caapi, Banister-
iopsis spp., and Peganum harmala. But
there are other MAO inhibitors in nat-
ure, such as caltrop (Tribulus terrestris).
Preferred DMT suppliers include Psy-
chotria viridis and Mimosa tenuiflora ,
although there are numerous other pos-
sibilities (see tables).

Page 136: The German artist Nana
Nauwald renders her Ayahuasca
visions in this painting, allowing the
viewer a glimpse into the “alternate
reality.”

Above: Many species of the North
American plant genus Desmodium
contain the potent substance DMT in
their root bark, making them suited in
the preparation of drinks similar to
Ayahuasca.

Above: The seeds of the Mimosa scab-
rella contain DMT and are usable in the
preparation of Ayahuasca analogs.

137

1: The leaf of the extremely rare Acacia
phlebophylla is rich with DMT. It grows
only on one mountain in Australia.

2: The Australian native Acacia maidenii
contains a high concentration of DMT in
its bark.

3: The seeds of the South American
tree Dictyloma incanescens. This tree
contains ample amounts of 5-MeO-
DMT.

4: The seeds of the tropical Mucuna
pruriens are preferred by the traditional
people to make jewelry. In addition they
contain high concentrations of DMT and
5-MeO-DMT.

Ayahuasca Analogs: Plants that contain DMT

Plant Family

Drug

Tryptamine

Gram ineae (Poaceae)

Arundo donax L. Rhizome

DMT

Phalaris arundinacea L, Grass, root

DMT

Phalaris tuberosa L. (Italian strain) Leaves

DMT

Phragmites australis (Ca\j.)TR. et ST. x 2S Rhizome

DMT, 5-MeO-DMT

' uwoua/io \uav./ i i i. ci i . ^ ^ Qj

Leguminosae (Fabaceae) jL

Acacia maidenii F.v. Muetl.

uP Bark

0.36% DMT

Acacia phlebophylla F.v. Muell.

Leaves

0.3% DMT

Acacia simplicifolia Druce

Leaves, bark

0.81 % DMT

Anadenanthera peregrina (L.) Spag.

Bark

DMT, 5-MeO-DMT

Desmanthus illinoensis (Michx.) Macm.

Root-bark

up to 0.34% DMT

Desmodium pulchellum Benth. ex. Bak.

Root bark

DMT

Desmodium spp.

DMT

Lespedeza capitata Michx.

DMT

Mimosa scabrella Benth.

Bark

DMT

Mimosa tenuiflora (Willd.) Poir.

Root bark

0.57-1 % DMT

Mucuna pruriens DC.

Seeds

DMT, 5-MeO-DMT

Malpighiaceae

Diplopterys cabrerana (Cuatr.) Gates

Leaves

DMT, 5-MeO-DMT

Myristicaceae

Virola sebifera Aub.

Bark

DMT

Viroia theiodora (Spruce ex Benth.) Warb.

Flowers

0.44% DMT

Virola spp.

Bark, resin

DMT, 5-MeO-DMT

Rubiaceae

Psychotria poeppigiana MUELL. -ARG.

Leaves

DMT

Psychotria viridis R. et P.

Leaves

DMT

Rutaceae

Dictyoloma incanescens DC

Bark

0.04% 5-MeO-DMT

5: A species of the DMT-containing
genus Desmodium.

6: The Turkey Red variety of the grass
Phalaris arundinacea contains liberal
amounts of DMT.

7; The root bark of the Mexican Mimosa
tenuiflora (Mimosa hostillis) is full of
psychoactive alkaloids. The dried root
bark contains about 1 % DMT. It is
well suited for the production of an
Ayahuasca analog.

138

Ayahuasca Churches

In addition to the true shamanic use of Aya-
huasca, recently various syncretic churches
have been established that also use Aya-
huasca as part of their religious rituals. The
Santo Daime cult as well as the Ayahuasca
church, Uniao do Vegatal, hold regular
meetings in which the members — the great
majority of whom are mestizos from the low-
er classes— drink Ayahuasca together and
sing pious songs. Led by a priest, the group
travels to the spirits of the trees as well as to
the Christian holy spirits. Many cult mem-
bers discover a new meaning to life and find
healing for the soul. For the members of
these Brazilian churches, which have also
made headway in Europe, the use of this
magic potion is just as legal as it is for the
shamans of the jungle.

Santo Daime, the ritual drink of a cult, and
hoasca, the sacrament of another church,
are both made according to an original
Indian recipe in which the Banisteriopsis
caapiv ine and the leaves of the charcruna
shrub (Psychotria viridis) are boiled to make
an extremely psychedelic mixture.

The Santo Daime cult also has mission-
aries active in Europe, and this Brazilian
group has been especially successful in
Germany and the Netherlands. In Amster-
dam, they have their own church. Also in
the Netherlands, the potential use of Aya-
huasca to treat addictions is being tested.

Juremahuasca or Mimohuasca

This Ayahuasca analog is known among people knowledgeable in the field as
a preparation that is the most psychoactive and easiest to tolerate. Per per-
son, prepare:

3g Peganum harmala, finely ground
9 g root husk of Mimosa tenuiflora
Lemon or lime juice

The ground seeds of Syrian Rue (Peganum harmala) are soaked in water and
swallowed or taken in a gelatin capsule. Fifteen minutes later, drink the boiled
mixture of lemon or lime juice and Mimosa husk.

After 45 to 60 minutes— often after brief nausea or vomiting— the visions
begin. They often take the form of fireworks or kaleidoscope-like designs,
flashing colors, fantastic mandalas, or travels to another world. The effects
are equal to the effects of the Ayahuasca preparations from the Amazon.

.. BRUGMANSIA AUREA
' Golden Angel’s Trumpet

■in BRUGMANSIA SANGUINEA
' r ~ Blood-Red Angel’s Trumpet

TRUMPETS OF THE ANGELS

1: The shamanic use of the gold-yellow
flowering Brugmansia occurs primarily
in Colombia and northern Peru.

2: The flowers and leaves are used by
many Indian shamans for medicinal
purposes.

3: The ripe fruit of the Brugmansia
sanguinea. This Angel's Trumpet puts
out far more fruit than does any other
species.

4: The flower of Brugmansia sanguinea.

The Guambiano of southern Colombia
say of Brugmansia vulcanicola: “How
pleasant is the perfume of the long,
bell-like flowers of the Yas, as one in-
hales it in the afternoon . . . But the tree
has a spirit in the form of an eagle which
has been seen to come flying through
the air and then to disappear . . . The
spirit is so evil that if a weak person sta-
tions himself at the foot of the tree, he
will forget everything, . . . feeling up in
the air as if on wings of the spirit of the
Yas ... If a girl . . . sits resting in the
tree s shade, she will dream about men
of the Paez tribe, and later a figure will

be left in her womb which will be borne
six months later in the form of pips or
seeds of the tree.”

The species of Brugmansia are native
to South America. Brugmansia in the
past has usually been considered to re-
present a section of the genus Datura.
Thorough studies of the biology of
these plants have shown that they de-
serve to be classified in a distinct genus.
The behavior of the species — as well as
their location — indicates long associa-
tion with man.

The hallucinogenic use of Brugman-
sia may have come from knowledge of
the closely related Datura , knowledge
that proto-Indian Mongoloids brought
to the New World in late Paleolithic
and Mesolithic times. As they migrated
southward, they encountered other spe-
cies of Datura, especially in Mexico,
and bent them to shamanic use. Upon
arriving in the Andes of South America,
they recognized the resemblance of the
Brugmansias to Datura and found their
psychoactive properties very similar. At
any rate, everything about the use of
Brugmansia bespeaks great antiquity.

Little is known, however, of pre-
Conquest use of Brugmansia. There
are, nevertheless, scattered references
to these hallucinogens. The French
scientist de la Condamine mentioned
its use among the Omagua of the Rio
Maranon. The explorers von Humboldt
and Bonpland remarked on Tonga, the
red-flowered B. sanguinea, as a sacred
plant of the priests in the Temple of the
Sun at Sogamoza in Colombia.

Brugmansia arborea, B. aurea, and
B. sanguinea usually occur above an al-
titude of six thousand feet. The seeds are
widely employed as an additive to chi-
cha. The crushed leaves and flowers are
prepared in hot or cold water to be ta-
ken as a tea. Leaves can be mixed with
an infusion of Tobacco. Some Indians
may scrape off the soft green bark of
the stems and soak it in water for use.

The Brugmansia intoxication varies
but is always characterized by a violent
phase. There is probably no more suc-
cinct description than that of Johann J.
Tschudi in 1846, who saw the effects in

140

Peru. The native “fell into a heavy stu-
por, his eyes vacantly fixed on the
ground, his mouth convulsively closed,
and his nostrils dilated. In the course of
a quarter of an hour, his eyes began to
roll, foam issued from his mouth, and
his whole body was agitated by frightful
convulsions. After these violent symp-
toms had passed, a profound sleep of
several hours’ duration followed, and
when the subject had recovered, he re-
lated the particulars of his visit with his
forefathers.”

At Tunja, among the Muisca, accord-
ing to a report in 1589, a “dead chief was
accompanied to the tomb by his women
and slaves, who were buried in different
layers of earth ... of which none was
without gold. And so that the women
and poor slaves should not fear their
death before they saw the awful tomb,
the nobles gave them things to drink of
inebriating Tobacco and other leaves of
the tree we call Borrachero, all mixed in
their usual drink, so that of their senses
none is left to foresee the harm soon to
befall them.” The species employed
were undoubtedly Brugmansia aurea
and B. sanguined.

Among the Jivaro, recalcitrant chil-
dren are given a drink of B. sangumea
with parched maize; when intoxicated,
the children are lectured so that the spir-
its of the ancestors may admonish them.
In the Choco, Brugmansia seeds put
into magic chicha beer were thought to
produce in children an excitement dur-
ing which they could discover gold.

Indians in Peru still call Brugmansia
sangumea by the name Huaca or Hua-
cachaca (“plant of the tomb”) from the
belief that it reveals treasures anciently
buried in graves.

In the warmer parts of the western
Amazon, Brugmansia suaveolens, B. ver-
sicolor ; and B. x insignis are employed as
hallucinogens or as an admixture with
Ayahuasca.

Perhaps no locality can equal the Val-
ley of Sibundoy in the Andes of Colom-
bia for Brugmansia use. The Kamsa and
Ingano Indians use several species and a
number of local cultivars as hallucino-
gens. The Indians of this region, espe-

cially shamans, have a developed
knowledge of the effects of these plants
and grow them as private possessions.

Usually the property of specific sha-
mans, these cultivars have native na-
mes. The leaves of Buyes (B. aurea ) are
employed mainly to relieve rheuma-
tism, an effective medicine with its high
concentration of tropane alkaloids.
Biangan was employed formerly by
hunters: the leaves and flowers were
mixed with dogs’ food to enable them
to find more game. The tongue-shaped
leaf of Amaron is valued as a suppurant
and in treating rheumatism. The rarest

Above: The seeds of Brugmansia sua-
veolens are used in Peru as an intoxi-
cating additive to corn beer. They are
taken by the shamans in higher doses
and often produce a delirium that can
last for days with the most powerful of
hallucinations.

Below: The Blood-Red Angel’s Trumpet
is often planted in sacred places and
cemeteries. Here is a large plant grow-
ing with an image of the Madonna in
southern Chile.

The Chemistry of Brugmansia

The solanaceous Brugmansia arborea, B. aurea, B. sanguinea, B. suaveo-
lens, and B. versicolor contain the same tropane alkaloids as the Daturas:
scopolamine, hyoscyamine, atropine, and the various secondary alkaloids of
the tropane group, such as norscopolamine, aposcopolamine, meteloidine,
etc. Scopolamine, responsible for the hallucinogenic effects, is always found
in the largest quantity. The leaves and stems of B. aurea, for example, with a
total alkaloid of 0.3 percent, contain 80 percent scopolamine, which is also
the main alkaloid in the roots of Brugmansia.

141

cultivar is Salaman, with bizarrely atro-
phied leaves; it is employed both in
treating rheumatism and as a hallucino-
gen. The extreme in aberration is found
in Quinde and Munchira: these two are
used as hallucinogens but also in the
treatment of rheumatism and as emetics,
carminatives, vermifuges, and suppur-
ants; Munchira likewise is employed to
treat erysipelas. Quinde is the most
widely employed cultivar in Sibundoy;
Munchira the most toxic. The rare
Dientes and Ochre find their most im-
portant use in the treatment of rheu-
matic pains.

“A spirit so evil, our grandparents tell
us, was in these trees with flowers like
long bells, which give off their sweet
perfume in the afternoon, that they
were the food of those Indians at whose
name people trembled: fierce Pijaos.”

Culebra borrachero is thought by
some botanists to be one of those mon-
strous cultivars. More potent than any

of the cultivars of Brugmansia, it is used
hallucinogenically for the most difficult
cases of divination and as an effective
medicine for rheumatic or arthritic
pains.

The cultivars Quinde and Munchira
are most frequently used for their psy-
choactive effects. The juice of the
crushed leaves or flowers is drunk either
alone in a cold-water preparation or
with aguardiente (an alcoholic distillate
of sugar). In Sibundoy only shamans
usually take Bru.gma.nsia. Most shamans
“see” fearful visions of jaguars and
poisonous snakes. Symptoms and un-
pleasant aftereffects probably have
contributed to the limitation of Brug-
mansia as a hallucinogen.

The JIvaro believe that normal life is
an illusion, that the true powers behind
daily life are supernatural. The shaman,
with his potent hallucinogenic plants,
can cross over into the world of ethere-
al wonder and deal with the forces of

Left: A young Kamsa Indian boy of
Sibundoy. Colombia, holds a flower and
leaves of Culebra Borrachera prior to
brewing a tea for the purpose of intoxi-
cation in preparation for learning the
secrets of use of hallucinogens in magic
and medicine.

Right: The Valley of Sibundoy in south-
ern Colombia is a location of intensive
use of Brugmansia. One of the most
renowned medicine men of the Kamsa
tribe is Salvador Chindoy. Here he is
pictured in his ceremonial garb at the
beginning of a Brugmans/a-induced
intoxication for purposes of divination.

142

evil. A Jivaro boy at the age of six must
acquire an external soul, an arutam
wakani, the vision-producing soul that
can allow him to communicate with an-
cestors. To get his arutam the boy and
his father make a pilgrimage to a sacred
waterfall, bathing, fasting, and drinking
Tobacco water. Maikoa or Brugmansia
juice may also be taken to effect contact
with the supernatural during which the
boy’s arutam appears as jaguars and
anacondas and enters his body.

The Jivaro frequently take Natema
(Ayahuasca) or Banisteriopsis to acquire
the arutam, since it is a strong intoxi-
cant, but Brugmansia must be used if
Natema is not successful. Maikoa intox-
ication, the Jivaro assert, may cause
insanity.

From all viewpoints, species of Brug-
mansia have had a difficult time of it in
spite of their great beauty. They are
plants of the gods, but not the agreeable
gifts of the gods, like Peyote, the mush-
rooms, Ayahuasca. Their powerful and
wholly unpleasant effects, leading to
periods of violence and even temporary
insanity, together with their sickening
aftereffects, have conspired to put them
in a place of second category. They are
plants of the gods, true, but the gods do
not always strive to make life easy for
man — so they gave man the Brugman-
sias, to which he must on occasion re-
pair. The evil eagle hovers over man,
and his Borrachero is an ever-present
reminder that it is not always easy to
attain an audience with the gods.

Right. The beautiful flowers of the An-
gel's Trumpet inspired the Symbolists
(fabric printed after a design by
Alphonse Mucha, Paris 1896; original is
in the Wurttemburg State Museum,
Stuttgart, Germany).

Left: This drawing by a Guambiano In-
dian of the southern Andes of Colombia
depicts a native woman under a Borra-
chero tree, Brugmansia vulcanicola.
The portrayal of an eagle associated
with an evil spirit indicates the danger-
ous toxicity of this tree, which causes a
person tarrying under it to become for-
getful and to feel as if he were flying.

143

LOPHOPHORA

Peyote

THE TRACKS OF THE LITTLE DEER

Page 145 top: The Peyote crowns take
on many different forms, depending on
age and growing conditions.

Page 145 below: A group of large
Peyote cacti in their native habitat of
southern Texas.

Ever since the arrival of the first Euro-
peans in the New World, Peyote has
provoked controversy, suppression, and
persecution. Condemned by the Span-
ish conquerors for its “satanic trickery,”
and attacked again and again by local
governments and religious groups, the
plant has nevertheless continued to play
a major sacramental role among the In-
dians of Mexico, while its use has spread
to the northern tribes in the United
States in the last hundred years. The
persistence and growth of the Peyote
cult constitute a fascinating chapter in
the history of the New World — and a
challenge to the anthropologists and
psychologists, botanists and pharmaco-
logists who continue to study the plant

lished in native religions, and their ef-
forts to stamp out this practice drove it
into hiding in the hills, where its sacra-
mental use has persisted to the present
time.

How old is the Peyote cult? An early
Spanish chronicler, Fray Bernardino de
Sahagun, estimated on the basis of sev-
eral historical events recorded in Indian
chronology that Peyote was known to
the Chichimeca and Toltec at least
1,890 years before the arrival of the Eur-
opeans. This calculation would give the
“divine plant” of Mexico an economic
history extending over a period of some
two millennia. Then Carl Lumholtz, the
Danish ethnologist who did pioneer
work among the Indians of Chihuahua,

Left: The flowering Peyote cactus
(Lophophora williamsii).

Right: A Huichol yarn painting shows
the nurturing and fertile gifts of the
Peyote cactus.

and its constituents in connection with
human affairs.

We might logically call this needle-
less Mexican cactus the prototype of
the New World hallucinogens. It was
one of the first to be discovered by Eu-
ropeans and was unquestionably the
most spectacular vision-inducing plant
encountered by the Spanish conquer-
ors. They found Peyote firmly estab-

suggested that the Peyote cult is far old-
er. He showed that a symbol employed
in the Tarahumara Indian Peyote cere-
mony appeared in ancient ritualistic car-
vings preserved in Mesoamerican lava
rocks. More recently, archaeological
discoveries in dry caves and rock shel-
ters in Texas have yielded specimens of
Peyote. These specimens, found in a
context suggesting ceremonial use, indi-

144

cate that its use is more than seven thou-
sand years old.

The earliest European records con-
cerning this sacred cactus are those of
Sahagun, who lived from 1499 to 1590
and who dedicated most of his adult life
to the Indians of Mexico. His precise,
firsthand observations were not pub-
lished until the nineteenth century.
Consequently, credit for the earliest
published account must go to Juan
Cardenas, whose observations on the
marvelous secrets of the Indies were
published as early as 1591.

Sahagun’s writings are among the
most important of all the early chroni-
clers. He described Peyote use among
the Chichimeca, of the primitive desert
plateau of the north, recording for pos-
terity: “There is another herb like tunas
[ Opuntia spp.] of the earth. It is called
peiotl. It is white. It is found in the
north country. Those who eat or drink
it see visions either frightful or laugh-
able. This intoxication lasts two or three
days and then ceases. It is a common
food of the Chichimeca, for it sustains
them and gives them courage to fight
and not feel fear nor hunger nor thirst.
And they say that it protects them from
all danger.”

It is not known whether or not the
Chichimeca were the first Indians to
discover the psychoactive properties of
Peyote. Some students believe that the
Tarahumara Indians, living where Pe-
yote grew, were the first to discover its
use and that it spread from them to the
Cora, the Huichol, and other tribes.
Since the plant grows in many scattered
localities in Mexico, it seems probable
that its intoxicating properties were in-
dependently discovered by a number of
tribes.

Several seventeenth-century Spanish
Jesuits testified that the Mexican In-
dians used Peyote medicinally and cere-
monially for many ills and that when
intoxicated with the cactus they saw
“horrible visions.” Padre Andrea Perez
de Ribas, a seventeenth-century Jesuit
who spent sixteen years in Sinaloa, re-
ported that Peyote was usually drunk
but that its use, even medicinally, was

The Chemistry of Peyote

The active principle of Lophophora williamsii, the first hallucinogenic plant to
be chemically analyzed, was already identified at the end of the nineteenth
century as a crystallized alkaloid (see page 23). Because the dried cacti from
which the alkaloid was extracted are called mescal buttons, it was named
mescaline. In addition to mescaline, responsible for the visual hallucinogenic
effects, several related alkaloids have been isolated from Peyote and related
cacti.

When the chemical structure of mescaline was determined, it could be
produced synthetically. The chemistry is relatively simple: 3,4,5,-trimethoxy-
phenylethylamine. The model of this structure is shown on page 186.

Mescaline is chemically related to the neurotransmitter noradrenaline (nor-
epinephrine), a brain hormone, also shown here. The active dose of mesca-
line is 0.5-0.8 gram when applied orally,

145

Left: Following visions received during
the Peyote ritual, the Huichol bring
beaded “Peyote snakes” decorated with
designs of the Peyote to remote moun-
tain shrines of Earth Mother as an
offering of gratitude.

Right: An old and very large Peyote
cactus that is addressed as “Grand-
father'’ by the Indians. Notice the young
crowns.

forbidden and punished, since it was
connected with “heathen rituals and
superstitions” to contact evil spirits
through “diabolic fantasies.”

The first full description of the living
cactus was offered by Dr. Francisco
Hernandez, who as personal physician
of King Philip II of Spain was sent to
study Aztec medicine. In his ethnobo-
tanical study of New Spain, Dr. Her-
nandez described peyotl, as the plant
was called in the Nahuatl language of
the Aztecs: “The root is of nearly med-
ium size, sending forth no branches or
leaves above the ground, but with a
certain woolliness adhering to it on ac-
count of which it could not aptly be
figured by me. Both men and women
are said to be harmed by it. It appears
to be of a sweetish taste and moder-
ately hot. Ground up and applied to
painful joints, it is said to give relief.
Wonderful properties are attributed to
this root, if any faith can be given to
what is commonly said among them
on this point. It causes those devouring
it to be able to foresee and to predict
things ...”

In the latter part of the seventeenth

century, a Spanish missionary in Na-
yarit recorded the earliest account of a
Peyote ritual. Of the Cora tribe, he re-
ported: “Close to the musician was
seated the leader of the singing, whose
business it was to mark time. Each had
his assistants to take his place when he
should become fatigued. Nearby was
placed a tray filled with Peyote, which
is a diabolical root that is ground up
and drunk by them so that they may
not become weakened by the exhaust-
ing effects of so long a function, which
they begin by forming as large a circle
of men and women as could occupy
the space that had been swept off for
this purpose. One after the other, they
went dancing in a ring or marking time
with their feet, keeping in the middle
the musician and choir-master whom
they invited, and singing in the same
unmusical tune that he set them. They
would dance all night, from five
o’clock in the evening to seven o’clock
in the morning, without stopping nor
leaving the circle. When the dance was
ended, all stood who could hold them-
selves on their feet; for the majority,
from the Peyote and wine which they

146

“In consciousness dwells the wondrous,
with it man attains the realm beyond the material,
and the Peyote tells us,
where to find it.”

— Antonin Artaud, The Tarahumars (1947)

drank, were unable to utilize their
legs.

The ceremony among the Cora, Hui-
chol, and Tarahumara Indians has prob-
ably changed little in content over the
centuries: it still consists, in great part,
of dancing.

The modern Huichol Peyote ritual
is the closest to the pre-Columbian
Mexican ceremonies. Sahagun’s de-
scription of the Teochichimeca ritual
could very well be a description of
the contemporary Huichol ceremony,
for these Indians still assemble to-
gether in the desert three hundred
miles northeast of their homeland in
the Sierra Madres of western Mexico,
still sing all night, all day, still weep
exceedingly, and still so esteem Peyote
above any other psychotropic plant
that the sacred mushrooms, Morning
Glories, Datura, and other indigenous
hallucinogens are consigned to the
realm of sorcerers.

Most of the early records in Mexico
were left by missionaries who opposed
the use of Peyote in religious practice.
To them Peyote had no place in Chris-
tianity because of its pagan associations.
Since the Spanish ecclesiastics were in-
tolerant of any cult but their own, fierce
persecution resulted. But the Indians
were reluctant to give up their Peyote
cults established on centuries of tradi-
tion.

The suppression of Peyote, however,
went to great lengths. For example, a

priest near San Antonio, Texas, pub-
lished a manual in 1760 containing
questions to be asked of converts. In-
cluded were the following: “Have you
eaten the flesh of man? Have you ea-
ten Peyote?” Another priest, Padre
Nicolas de Leon, similarly examined
potential converts: “Art thou a sooth-
sayer? Dost thou foretell events by
reading omens, interpreting dreams or
by tracing circles and figures on
water? Dost thou garnish with flower
garlands the places where idols are
kept? Dost thou suck the blood of
others? Dost thou wander about at
night, calling upon demons to help
thee? Hast thou drunk Peyote or given
it to others to drink, in order to dis-
cover secrets or to discover where sto-
len or lost articles were?”

During the last decade of the nine-
teenth century, the explorer Carl Lum-
hoitz observed the use of Peyote among
the Indians of the Sierra Madre Occi-
dental of Mexico, primarily the Huichol
and Tarahumara, and he reported on the
Peyote ceremony and on various kinds
of cacti employed with Lophophora
williamsii or in its stead.

Above: Different cacti that are known in
Mexico as Peyote, Hikuii, Peyotillo, or
False Peyote. They primarily contain
the substance mescaline and other
psychoactive alkaloids.

Above left: Ariocarpus retusus
Above right: Astrophyton asterias
Below left: Aztekium riterii
Below right: Ariocarpus fissuratus

Left: The earliest known botanical illus-
tration of Lophophora williamsii, pub-
lished in 1847. It has been found in
archaeological sites more than seven
thousand years of age. It was probably
the first and most spectacular vision-
inducing plant encountered by the
Spanish conquerors of Mexico.

147

“You see how it is when we walk for the Peyote.
How we go, not eating, not drinking, with much will.
All of one heart. How one goes being Huichol.
That is our unity. That is what we must defend.”

— Ramon Medina Silva

Left: In Huichol geography, Wirikuta, the
place of the ancestor-gods, is the local-
ity of the origin of the sacred life of the
tribe. Peyote grows here and is col-
lected on the annual pilgrimages made
by small groups of devout Huichols. The
trip to Wirikuta is long and arduous, with
the pilgrims traveling as Ancient Ones.
Like the gods, they refrain from food,
sex, and sleep during this extraordinary
trip. When they first enter the domain of
their Paradise, the mara’akame Ramon
Medina Silva gestures toward Kau-
kayari (power spots) that once were
the living forms of the gods.

However, no anthropologist ever par-
ticipated in or observed a Peyote hunt
until the 1960s, when anthropologists
and a Mexican writer were permitted
by Huichols to accompany several pil-
grimages. Once a year, the Huichols
make a sacred trip to gather Hikuri, as
the sacred cactus is called. The trek is
led by an experienced mara’akame or
shaman, who is in contact with Tatewari
(Our grandfather-fire). Tatewari is the
oldest Huichol god, also known as Hi-
kuri, the Peyote-god. He is personified
with Peyote plants on his hands and
feet, and he interprets all the deities to
the modern shamans, often through vi-
sions, sometimes indirectly through

food taken for the stay in Wirikuta is
corn tortillas. The pilgrims, however,
eat Peyote while in Wirikuta. They must
travel great distances. Today, much of
the trek is done by car, but formerly the
Indians walked some two hundred
miles.

The preparation for gathering Peyote
involves ritual confession and purifica-
tion. Public recitation of all sexual en-
counters must be made, but no show of
shame, resentment, or jealousy, nor any
expression of hostility, occurs. For each
offense, the shaman makes a knot in a
string that, at the end of the ritual, is
burned. Following the confession, the
group, preparing to set out for Wirikuta—

Kauyumari (the Sacred Deer Person
and culture hero). Tatewari led the first
Peyote pilgrimage far from the present
area inhabited by the nine thousand
Huichols into Wirikuta, an ancestral re-
gion where Peyote abounds. Guided by
the shaman, the participants, usually ten
to fifteen in number, take on the iden-
tity of deified ancestors as they follow
Tatewari “to find their life.”

The Peyote hunt is literally a hunt. Pil-
grims carry Tobacco gourds, a necessity
for the journey’s ritual. Water gourds are
often taken to transport water back
home from Wirikuta. Often the only

an area located in San Luis Potosf — -
must be cleansed before journeying to
paradise.

Upon arriving within sight of the
sacred mountains of Wirikuta, the pil-
grims are ritually washed and pray for
rain and fertility. Amid the praying and
chanting of the shaman, the dangerous
crossing into the Otherworld begins.
This passage has two stages: first, the
Gateway of the Clashing Clouds, and
second, the opening of the Clouds.
These do not represent actual localities
but exist only in the “geography of the
mind”; to the participants the passing

Right: A Peyote hunter spreads out his harvest at
home.

Left: The baskets carried to Wirikuta contain only a few
personal and ceremonial objects. On the return trip they
are filled with the Peyote buttons collected on the pil-
grimage. The Huichol say that Peyote is “very delicate,”
so the heavily laden baskets are carefully transported
back to the Sierras in order to avoid bruising the cactus.
Leaning against the basket is a Huichol violin, used to
provide music for the Peyote dancing.

Below right: Huichol Indians returning from a
pilgrimage.

Below left : A Peyote hunter with a basketful of Peyote

has seen the deer tracks. He draws his
arrow and shoots the cactus. The pil-
grims make offerings to this first Hi-
kuri. More Peyote is sought, basketfuls
of the plant eventually being collected.
On the following day, more Peyote is
collected, some of which is to be shared
with those who remain at home. The
rest is to be sold to the Cora and Tara-
humara Indians, who use Peyote but do
not have a quest,

The ceremony of distributing To-
bacco is then carried out. Arrows are
placed pointing to the four points of
the compass; at midnight a fire is built.

Page 148 right: Each pilgrim has
brought offerings to Peyote. After these
gifts are carefully displayed, the pilgrims
raise candles in the direction of the as-
cending sun. They weep and pray that
the gods accept their offering, while
Ramon (second from right) fervently
chants.

from one to the other is an event filled
with emotion.

Upon arrival at the place where the
Peyote is to be hunted, the shaman be-
gins ceremonial practices, telling stories
from the ancient Peyote tradition and
invoking protection for the events to
come. Those on their first pilgrimage
are blindfolded, and the participants
are led by the shaman to the “cosmic
threshold,” which only he can see. All
celebrants stop, light candles, and mur-
mur prayers, while the shaman, imbued
with supernatural forces, chants.

Finally, Peyote is found. The shaman

Page 151 left. The Huichol “trinity” of
deer, maize, and Peyote is a hypersym-
bolic complex, a concept harkening
back to the time of creation. This para-
disiacal era antedates the separation of
plants from animals, with Peyote repre-
senting the trans-temporal link with the
supernatural. On the annual Peyote
hunt of the Huichol, the pilgrims shoot
the first found Peyote with an arrow and
that special Peyote is likened to a dying
deer and accorded particular chants;
offerings of maize seeds are likewise
made.

Page 151 right: The Yaqui Indians of
northern Mexico symbolize the Peyote
cactus as a buck, as in this wood
carving.

Right: A Huichol sacrificial bowl deco-
rated with Peyote designs.

According to the Huichol, Tobacco
belongs to fire.

The shaman prays, placing the offer-
ing of Tobacco before the fire, touching
it with feathers, then distributing it to
each pilgrim, who puts it into his gourd,
symbolizing the birth of Tobacco.

The Huichol Peyote hunt is seen as a
return to Wirikuta or Paradise, the arche-
typal beginning and end of a mythical

Above: “It is one, it is a unity; it is our-
selves.” These words of Huichol
mara’akame Ramon Medina Silva de-
scribe the mystical rapport unfolding
among communicants in the Peyote
ceremonies that is such an important
dimension in the lives of these people.
In this yarn painting, six peyoteros and
the shaman (on top) achieve that unity
in a field of fire. In the center of the
peyoteros is Tatewari, the First Sha-
man, as a five-plumed fire.

past. A modern Huichol mara’akame
expressed it as follows: “One day all
will be as you have seen it there, in Wir-
ikuta. The First People will come back.
The fields will be pure and crystalline,
all this is not clear to me, but in five
more years I will know it, through more
revelations. The world will end, and the
unity will be here again. But only for
pure Huichol.”

Among the Tarahumara, the Peyote

cult is less important. Many buy their
supplies of the cactus, usually from
Huichol. Although the two tribes live
several hundred miles apart and are not
closely related, they share the same
name for Peyote — Hikuri — and the
two cults have many points of resem-
blance.

The Tarahumara Peyote dance may
be held at any time during the year for
health, tribal prosperity, or for simple
worship. It is sometimes incorporated
into other established festivals. The
principal part of the ceremony consists
of dances and prayers followed by a day
of feasting. It is held in a cleared area,
neatly swept. Oak and pine logs are
dragged in for a fire and oriented in an
east-west direction. The Tarahumara
name for the dance means “moving
about the fire,” and except for Peyote
itself, the fire is the most important ele-
ment.

The leader has several women assis-
tants who prepare the Hikuri plants
for use, grinding the fresh cacti on a
metate, being careful not to lose one
drop of the resulting liquid. An assis-
tant catches all liquid in a gourd, even
the water used to wash the metate.
The leader sits west of the fire, and a
cross may be erected opposite him. In
front of the leader, a small hole is dug
into which he may spit. A Peyote may
be set before him on its side or in-
serted into a root-shaped hole bored
in the ground. He inverts half a gourd
over the Peyote, turning it to scratch a
circle in the earth around the cactus.
Removing the gourd temporarily, he
draws a cross in the dust to represent
the world, thereupon replacing the
gourd. This apparatus serves as a reso-
nator for the rasping stick: Peyote is
set under the resonator, since it enjoys
the sound.

Incense from burning copal is then
offered to the cross. After facing east,
kneeling, and crossing themselves, the
leader’s assistants are given deer-hoof
rattles or bells to shake during the
dance.

150

Below: The Huichol shaman Ramon Medina Silva
silently awaits his Peyote visions. Wrapped in his blan-
ket, gazing into the ceremonial fire, he sits motionless
for many hours as he receives messages from the
gods. He said of the Peyote pilgrimage: “Our sym-

The ground-up Peyote is kept in a pot
or crock near the cross and is served in a
gourd by an assistant: he makes three
rounds of the fire if carrying the gourd
to the leader, one if carrying it to an or-
dinary participant. All the songs praise
Peyote for its protection of the tribe and
for its “beautiful intoxication.”

Healing ceremonies are often carried
out like the Huichol’s.

The Tarahumara leader cures at day-
break. The first terminates dancing by
giving three raps. He rises, accompanied
by a young assistant, and, circling the
patio, he touches every forehead with
water. He touches the patient thrice,
and placing his stick to the patient’s
head, he raps three times. The dust pro-
duced by the rapping, even though infi-
nitesimal, is a powerful health- and life-
giver and is saved for medicinal use.

The final ritual sends Peyote home.
The leader reaches toward the rising
sun and raps thrice. “In the early morn-
ing, Hikuli had come from San Ignacio
and from Satapolio riding on beautiful
green doves, to feast with the Tarahu-
mara at the end of the dance when the
people sacrifice food and eat and drink.
Having bestowed his blessings, Hikuli
forms himself into a ball and flies to his
shelter at the time.”

Peyote is employed as a religious sa-
crament among more than forty Amer-
ican Indian tribes in many parts of the
United States and western Canada. Be-
cause of its wide use, Peyote early at-
tracted the attention of scientists and

bols — the deer, the Peyote, the maize ot five colors —
all, all that you have seen, there in Wirikuta, when we
go to hunt the Peyote — these are beautiful. They are
beautiful because they are right.” (From Barbara
Myerhoff, Peyote Hunt)

legislators and engendered heated and,
unfortunately, often irresponsible op-
position to its free use in American In-
dian ceremonies.

It was the Kiowa and Comanche In-
dians, apparently, who in visits to a na-
tive group in northern Mexico first
learned of this sacred American plant.
Indians in the United States had been
restricted to reservations by the last half

151

Above left: The roadman in the Native
American Church officiates at the
Peyote meeting as a representative of
the Great Spirit. It is his duty to show the
"Peyote road" to the participants. The
roadman in Stephen Mopope’s painting
holds traditional ceremonial objects as-
sociated with the religion: the fan, staff,
and rattle. On his cheek is painted the
crown of a Peyote plant. In the center
picture, also by Mopope, chanting parti-
cipants sit inside the sacred tepee, in
the middle of which is Father Fire and
the crescent moon altar. Above the te-
pee is the Peyote water drum. The
photograph on the far right depicts the
Sioux medicine man Henry Crow Dog
chanting at a Peyote meeting on the
Rosebud Reservation.

Above middle: Also by Mopope. This
shows the participant who sits singing in
the interior of his sacred tipi. In the mid-
dle is Father Fire and the sickle shaped
altar. Above the tipi is the water con-
tainer.

Above right: Sioux Medicine Man Henry
Crow Dog at a Peyote Gathering on the
Rosebud reservation.

of the nineteenth century, and much of
their cultural heritage was disintegrat-
ing and disappearing. Faced with this
disastrous inevitability, a number of In-
dian leaders, especially from tribes relo-
cated in Oklahoma, began actively to
spread a new kind of Peyote cult adap-
ted to the needs of the more advanced
Indian groups of the United States.

The Kiowa and Comanche were ap-
parently the most active proponents of
the new religion. Today it is the Kiowa-
Comanche type of Peyote ceremony
that, with slight modifications, prevails
north of the Mexican border. This cere-
mony, to judge from the rapid spread of
the new Peyote religion, must have ap-
pealed strongly to the Plains tribes and
later to other groups.

Success in spreading the new Peyote
cult resulted in strong opposition to its
practice from missionary and local gov-
ernmental groups. The ferocity of this
opposition often led local governments
to enact repressive legislation, in spite of
overwhelming scientific opinion that
Indians should be permitted to use
Peyote in religious practices. In an at-
tempt to protect their rights to free reli-

gious activity, American Indians orga-
nized the Peyote cult into a legally
recognized religious group, the Native
American Church. This religious move-
ment, unknown in the United States
before 1885, numbered 13,300 members
in 1922. In 1993 there were at least
300,000 members among seventy differ-
ent tribes.

Indians of the United States, living far
from the natural area of Peyote, must
use the dried top of the cactus, the so-
called mescal button, legally acquired
by either collection or purchase and dis-
tribution through the U.S. postal ser-
vices. Some American Indians still send
pilgrims to gather the cactus in the
fields, following the custom of Mexican
Indians, but most tribal groups in the
United States must procure their sup-
plies by purchase and mail.

A member may hold a meeting in gra-
titude for the recovery of health, the
safe return from a voyage, or the success
of a Peyote pilgrimage; it may be held to
celebrate the birth of a baby, to name a
child, on the first four birthdays of a
child, for doctoring, or even for general
thanksgiving.

152

Left: The Peyote rattle is an important
instrument for the Peyote ceremony of
the Native American Church.

The Kickapoo hold a Peyote service
for the dead, and the body of the de-
ceased is brought into the ceremonial
tepee. The Kiowa may have five services
at Easter, four at Christmas and
Thanksgiving, six at the New Year.
Especially among the Kiowa, meetings
are held only on Saturday night. Any-
one who is a member of the Peyote cult
may be a leader or “roadman.” There
are certain taboos that the roadman,
and sometimes all participants, must
observe. The older men refrain from
eating salt the day before and after a
meeting, and they may not bathe for
several days following a Peyote service.
There seem to be no sexual taboos, as in
the Mexican tribes, and the ceremony is
free of licentiousness. Women are ad-
mitted to meetings to eat Peyote and to
pray, but they do not usually participate
in the singing and drumming. After the
age of ten, children may attend meet-
ings, but do not take part until they are
adults.

Peyote ceremonies differ from tribe
to tribe. The typical Plains Indian ser-
vice takes place usually in a tepee erected
over a carefully made altar of earth or

clay; the tepee is taken down as soon as
the all-night ceremony is over. Some
tribes hold the ceremony in a wooden
round-house with a permanent altar of
cement inside, and the Osage and Qua-
paw Indians often have electrically
lighted round-houses.

The Father Peyote (a large “mescal
button” or dried top of the Peyote
plant) is placed on a cross or rosette of
sage leaves at the center of the altar. This
crescent : shaped altar, symbol of the
spirit of Peyote, is never taken from the
altar during the ceremony. As soon as
the Father Peyote has been put in place,
all talking stops, and all eyes are direc-
ted toward the altar.

Tobacco and corn shucks or black-
jack oak leaves are passed around the
circle of worshipers, each making a ci-
garette for use during the leader’s open-
ing prayer.

The next procedure involves purifica-
tion of the bag of mescal buttons in ce-
dar incense. Following this blessing, the
roadman takes four mescal buttons
from the bag, which is then passed
around in a clockwise direction, each
worshiper taking four. More Peyote

Above right: The photograph portrays
the roadman’s feathered staff of author-
ity: two smoking sticks for lighting the
ritual cigarettes, one of which indicates
in the combination of the thunderbird
and the cross the melding of Christian
and Native elements; corn shucks for
cigarettes; a drumstick; several gourd
rattles; two Mescal bean necklaces,
part of the roadman’s dress; a bundle of
sagebrush; Peyote buttons; a Peyote
ceremony necktie; a black “Peyote
cloth,” an eagle wing-bone flute and
a small pile of “cedar” needles for
incensing.

153

I-"-- T®

i ^

y. " N/ V . K

m fu n

Top left: The Peyote Goddess, or Earth
Mother, of the Huichol in a modern de-
piction. Her dress is decorated with
symbols of the sacred cactus. The
Peyote is her gift to humans in order that
they may enter into contact with her. By
knowing her, man learns to respect and
honor the earth and use her wisely.

Top right: A Huichol man with the small
Peyote garden he has planted in his vil-
lage and which he lovingly cares for.

Above: A Huichol shaman
(mara'akame) sings with his assistants
in front of the temple in which the Peyote
ceremony will take place.

Page 155 fop: The ground Peyote is
mixed with water and given to the parti-
cipants at the intoxicating ceremony.

may be called for at any time during the
ceremony, the amount consumed being
left to personal discretion. Some peyo-
tists eat up to thirty-six buttons a night,
and some boast of having ingested up-
wards of fifty. An average amount is
probably about twelve.

Singing starts with the roadman, the
initial song always being the same, sung
or chanted in a high nasal tone. Trans-
lated, the song means: “May the gods
bless me, help me, and give me power
and understanding.”

Sometimes, the roadman may be
asked to treat a patient. This procedure
varies in form. The curing ritual is al-
most always simple, consisting of pray-
ing and frequent use of the sign of the
cross.

Peyote eaten in ceremony has as-
sumed the role of a sacrament in part
because of its biological activity: the
sense of well-being that it induces and
the psychological effects (the chief of
which is the kaleidoscopic play of richly
colored visions) often experienced by
those who indulge in its use. Peyote is

considered sacred by Native Americans,
a divine “messenger” enabling the indi-
vidual to communicate with God with-
out the medium of a priest. It is an
earthly representative of God to many
peyotists. “God told the Delawares to
do good even before He sent Christ to
the whites who killed Him . . .,” an In-
dian explained to an anthropologist.
“God made Peyote. It is His power. It
is the power of Jesus. Jesus came after-
wards on this earth, after Peyote . . .
God (through Peyote) told the Dela-
wares the same things that Jesus told
the whites.”

Correlated with its use as a religious
sacrament is its presumed value as a
medicine. Some Indians claim that if
Peyote is used correctly, all other medi-
cines are superfluous. Its supposed cura-
tive properties are responsible probably
more than any other attribute for the ra-
pid diffusion of the Peyote cult in the
United States.

The Peyote religion is a medico-
religious cult. In considering Native
American medicines, one must always

154

bear in mind the difference between
the aboriginal concept of a medicinal
agent and that of our modern Western
medicine. Indigenous societies, in gen-
eral, cannot conceive of natural death
or illness but believe that they are due
to supernatural interference. There are

two types of “medicines”: those with
purely physical effects (that is, to re-
lieve toothache or digestive upsets);
and the medicines, par excellence , that
put the medicine man into communica-
tion, through a variety of visions, with
the malevolent spirits that cause illness
and death.

The factors responsible for the rapid
growth and tenacity of the Peyote re-
ligion in the United States are many
and interrelated. Among the most ob-
vious, however, and those most often
cited, are: the ease of legally obtaining
supplies of the hallucinogen; lack of
federal restraint; cessation of intertri-
bal warfare; reservation life with con-
sequent intermarriage and peaceful
exchange of social and religious ideas;
ease of transportation and postal com-
munication; and the general attitude of
resignation toward encroaching Wes-
tern culture.

In the year 1995 the use of peyote by
members of the Native American
Church was made legal by Bill Clinton!

Above: A modern Peyote bird of the
Navajo.

Left: A Peyote fan (Navajo) made from
peacock feathers is used by the Indians
to induce visions.

155

CONOCYBE

LITTLE FLOWERS OF THE GODS

PANAEOLUS CYANESCENS
" " Blue Meanies

PANAEOLUS SPHINCTRINUS
Hoop- petticoat

R( - PANAEOLUS SUBBALTEATUS
Dark-rimmed Mottlegill
7R PSILOCYBECUBENSIS
® San Isidro

77 PSILOCYBE CYANESCENS
' ' Wavy Cap

7 n PSILOCYBE MEXICANA
Teonanacatl

7Q PSILOCYBE SEMILANCEATA
' ^ Liberty Cap

Above: One of the largest fruiting bodies
of Psilocybe azurescens ever found.

“There is a world beyond ours, a world
that is far away, nearby, and invisible.
And there is where God lives, where
the dead live, the spirits and the saints,
a world where everything has already
happened and everything is known.
That world talks. It has a language of
its own. I report what it says. The sacred
mushroom takes me by the hand and
brings me to the world where every-
thing is known. It is they, the sacred
mushrooms, that speak in a way I can
understand. I ask them and they answer
me. When I return from the trip that I
have taken with them, I tell what they
have told me and what they have shown
me.

Thus does the famous Mazatec sha-
man Maria Sabina reverently describe
the god-given powers of the intoxicat-
ing mushrooms that she uses in her
ceremony, which has come down from
ages past.

Few plants of the gods have ever been
held in greater reverence than the sacred
mushrooms of Mexico. So hallowed
were these fungi that the Aztecs called
them Teonanacatl (“divine flesh”) and
used them only in the most holy of their
ceremonies. Even though, as fungi,
mushrooms do not blossom, the Aztecs
referred to them as “flower,” and the In-
dians who still use them in religious ri-
tuals have endearing terms for them,
such as “little flowers.”

When the Spaniards conquered Mex-
ico, they. were aghast to find the natives
worshiping their deities with the help of
inebriating plants: Peyotl, Ololiuqui,
Teonanacatl. The mushrooms were es-

pecially offensive to the European ec-
clesiastical authorities, and they set out
to eradicate their use in religious prac-
tices.

“They possessed another method of
intoxication, which sharpened their
cruelty; for if they used certain small
toadstools . . . they would see a thou-
sand visions and especially snakes . . .
They called these mushrooms in their
language teunamacatlth, which means
‘God’s flesh,’ or of the Devil whom they
worshiped, and in this wise with that
bitter victual by their cruel God were
they houseled.”

In 1656, a guide for missionaries ar-
gued against Indian idolatries, including
mushroom ingestion, and recommen-
ded their extirpation. Not only do re-
ports condemn Teonanacatl, but actual
illustrations also denounce it. One de-
picts the devil enticing an Indian to eat
the fungus; another has the devil per-
forming a dance upon a mushroom.

“But before explaining this [idola-
try],” one of the clerics said, “I wish to
explain the nature of the said mush-
rooms [that] were small and yellowish,
and to collect them the priests and old
men, appointed as ministers for these
impostures, went to the hills and re-
mained almost the whole night in sermo-
nizing and in superstitious praying. At
dawn, when a certain little breeze which
they know begins to blow, they would
gather them, attributing to them deity
When they are eaten or drunk, they in-
toxicate, depriving those who partake of
them of their senses and making them
believe a thousand absurdities.”

1 . Psilocybe mexicana

2. Psilocybe semperviva

3. Psilocybe yungensis

4. Psilocybe caerulescens var. mazatecorum

5. Psilocybe caerulescens var. nigripes

Below: In 1979 the largest and most potent mushroom
in the Psilocybe genus was found in Astoria, Oregon.
Psilocybe azurescens contains the highest concentra-
tion of psilocybine of all mushrooms.

Dr. Francisco Hernandez, personal
physician to the king of Spain, wrote
that three kinds of intoxicating mush-
rooms were worshiped. After describ-
ing a lethal species, he stated that
“others when eaten cause not death but
madness that on occasion is lasting, of
which the symptom is a kind of uncon-
trolled laughter. Usually called teyhuin-
tli, these are deep yellow, acrid and of a
not displeasing freshness. There are
others again which, without inducing
laughter, bring before the eyes all kinds
of visions, such as wars and the likeness
of demons. Yet others are there not less
desired by princes for their fiestas and
banquets, of great price. With night-
long vigils are they sought, awesome
and terrifying. This kind is tawny and
somewhat acrid.”

For four centuries nothing was
known of the mushroom cult; and it
was even doubted that mushrooms were
used hallucinogenically in ceremony.
The Church fathers had done such a
successful job of driving the cult into
hiding through persecution that no
anthropologist or botanist had ever un-
covered the religious use of these mush-
rooms until this century.

In 1916 an American botanist finally
proposed a “solution” to the identifica-
tion of Teonanacatl, concluding that
Teonanacatl and the Peyote were the
same drug. Motivated by distrust of the
chroniclers and Indians, he intimated
that the natives, to protect Peyote, were
indicating mushrooms to the authori-
ties. He argued that the dried, brownish,
disklike crown of Peyote resembles a

Below: In Europe and North America
there are countless modern artifacts
that reflect the contemporary mush-
room cult.

Above: Mushrooms with psychoactive
properties are found around the world.
In many places T-shirts with mushroom
motifs are available for the traveling
mushroom lover. Embroidery from
Kathmandu, Nepal.

Above righblUe Psilocybe pelliculosa
is a relatively weak moderately active
mushroom from the Pacific North West.

dried mushroom — so remarkably that it
will even deceive a mycologist. It was
not until the 1930s that an understand-
ing of the role of hallucinogenic mush-
rooms in Mexico and a knowledge of
their botanical identification and chemi-
cal composition started to become
available. In the late 1930s the first two
of the many species of sacred Mexican
mushrooms were collected and asso-
ciated with a modern mushroom cere-
mony. Subsequent field research has
resulted in the discovery of some two
dozen species. The most important be-
long to the genus Psilocybe, twelve of
which have been reported, not includ-
ing Stropharia cubensis, sometimes con-

sidered a Psilocybe. The most important
species appear to be Psilocybe mexicana,
P. cubensis, and P. caerulescens.

These various mushrooms are now
known to be employed in divinatory
and religious rites among the Mazatec,
Chinantec, Chatino, Mixe, Zapotec,
and Mixtec of Oaxaca; the Nahua and
possibly the Otomi of Puebla; and the
Tarascans of Michoacan. The present
center of intensive use of the sacred
mushrooms is among the Mazatec.

Mushrooms vary in abundance from
year to year and at different seasons.
There may be years when one or more
species are rare or absent — they vary
in their distribution and are not ubi-

158

Left: The sixteenth-century Spanish
friar Bernardino de Sahagun
denounced the Aztec’s sacramental
use of Teonanacatl, the “wondrous
mushroom." This drawing, which
appears in Sahagun’s famous chronicle,
Codex Florentino, depicts a demonlike
spirit over crudely drawn mushrooms.

quitous. Furthermore, each shaman
has his own favorite mushrooms and
may forgo others; Maria Sabina, for
example, will not use Psilocybe cuben-
sis. And certain mushrooms are used
for specific purposes. This means that
each ethnobotanical expedition may
not expect to find the same assortment
of species employed at one time, even
in the same locality and by the same
people.

Chemical studies have indicated that
psilocybine and, to a lesser extent, psi-
locine are present in many of the species
of the several genera associated with the
Mexican ceremony. In fact, these com-
pounds have been isolated from many
species of Psilocybe and other genera in
widely separated parts of the world,
although the evidence available suggests
that only in Mexico are psilocybine-
containing mushrooms at present ut j-j
lized in native ceremonies.

The modern mushroom ceremony ^
an all-night seance that may include a
curing ritual. Chants accompany the
main part of the ceremony. The intoxi-
cation is characterized by fantastically
colored visions in kaleidoscopic move-
ment and sometimes by auditory hallu-
cinations, and the partaker loses himself
in unearthly flights of fancy.

The mushrooms are collected in the
forests at the time of the new moon by
a virgin girl, then taken to a church to
remain briefly on the altar. They are
never sold in the marketplace. The Ma-
zatec call the mushrooms Nti-si-tho, in
which “Nti” is a particle of reverence
and endearment; the rest of the name
means “that which springs forth.” A
Mazatec explained this thought poeti-
cally: “The little mushroom comes of it-
self, no one knows whence, like the
wind that comes we know not whence
nor why.”

The male or female shaman chants for
hours, with frequent clapping or percus-
sive slaps on the thighs in rhythm with
the chant. Maria Sabina’s chanting,
which has been recorded, studied, and
translated, in great part proclaims hum-
bly her qualifications to cure and to inter-
pret divine power through the mush-

The Chemistry of Teonanacatl

Teonanacatl, the sacred mushrooms of Mexico, owe their hallucinogenic ef-
fects to two alkaloids known as psilocybine and psilocine.

The main component, psilocybine, is the phosphoric acid ester of psilocine,
which occurs usually only in trace elements. Psilocybine and psilocine, being
tryptamine derivatives, belong to the class of indole alkaloids. Their crystals
are shown on page 23; their chemical structure on page 186. The chemical
relationship of these hallucinogens to the physiological compound serotonine
is especially significant. Serotonine, the molecular model of which is shown
on page 187, is a neurotransmitter and, therefore, important in the biochem-
istry of psychic functions. Both psilocybine and psilocine can be produced
synthetically. The active dose in man is 6-1 2 mg. Twenty to 30 mg induce
strong visions.

rooms. Excerpts from her chant, all in
the beautiful tonal Mazatec language,
give an idea of her many “qualifications.”

“Woman who thunders am I, woman
who sounds am I.

Spiderwoman am I, hummingbird
woman am I . . .

Eagle woman am I, important eagle
woman am I.

Whirling woman of the whirlwind
am I, woman of a sacred, enchanted
place am I,

Woman of the shooting stars am I.”

Above left: In Mexico an unusual saint
named El Nino is worshiped in the
Catholic Church. The Mexican Indians
understand him as an embodiment of
the sacred mushroom, which they also
call Nino. (Altar in San Cristobal de Las
Casas, Chiapas)

Above right: The tropical Magic Mush-
room Psilocybe cubensis (Stropharia
cubensis) was first gathered in Cuba
and mycologically ascertained. It grows
in all tropical zones, preferring cow
manure.

R. Gordon Wasson, the first non-
Indian fully to witness the Mazatec

159

In 1958, the famous Mazatec shaman
Maria Sabina performed a Velada (night
vigil) on behalf of a seventeen-year-old
youth, Pefecto Jose Garcia, who was
seriously ill.

Left to right: Pefecto awaits the com-
mencement of the Velada.

Pefecto stands up at the beginning of
the ceremony, and Maria Sabina turns
her head to gaze at him.

The shaman has incensed pairs of
sacred mushrooms and hands Pefecto
the intoxicating plant for ingestion.

Pefecto has heard the unfavorable
diagnosis, which Maria Sabina has
learned through the help of the mush-
rooms— that there is no hope for his
recovery. He collapses in terror and
despair.

The shaman and her daughter, adverse
diagnosis notwithstanding, continue to
chant, hoping for more insight — even
though she has learned that Pefecto’s
soul has been irrevocably lost.

ceremony, wrote the following under-
standing thoughts about this use of the
mushrooms:

“Here let me say a word about the
nature of the psychic disturbance that
the eating of the mushroom causes. This
disturbance is wholly different from the
effect of alcohol, as different as night
from day We are entering upon a dis-
cussion in which the vocabulary of the
English language, of any European lan-
guage, is seriously deficient.

“There are no apt words in it to char-
acterize one’s state when one is, shall we
say, ‘bemushroomed.’ For hundreds,
even thousands, of years, we have
thought about these things in terms of
alcohol, and we now have to break the
bounds imposed on us by our alcoholic
obsession. We are all, willy-nilly, con-
fined within the prison walls of our
everyday vocabulary. With skill in our
choice of words, we may stretch ac-
cepted meanings to cover slightly new
feelings and thoughts, but when a state
of mind is utterly distinct, wholly novel,
then all our old words fail. How do you

tell a man who has been born blind what
seeing is like? In the present case this is
an especially apt analogy, because su-
perficially the bemushroomed man
shows a few of the objective symptoms
of one who is intoxicated, drunk. Now
virtually all the words describing the
state of drunkenness, from ‘intoxicated’
(which literally means ‘poisoned’)
through the scores of current vulgar-
isms, are contemptuous, belittling, pe-
jorative. How curious it is that modern
civilized man finds surcease from care in
a drug for which he seems to have no
respect! If we use by analogy the terms
suitable for alcohol, we prejudice the
mushroom, and since there are few
among us who have been bemush-
roomed, there is danger that the experi-
ence will not be fairly judged. What we
need is a vocabulary to describe all the
modalities of a divine inebriant ...”
Upon receiving six pairs of mush-
rooms in the ceremony, Wasson ate
them. He experienced the sensation of
his soul being removed from his body
and floating in space. He saw “geometric

160

patterns, angular, in richest colors,
which grew into architectural struc-
tures, the stonework in brilliant colors,
gold and onyx and ebony, extending
beyond the reach of sight, in vistas mea-
sureless to man. The architectural
visions seemed to be oriented, seemed
to belong to the . . . architecture de-
scribed by the visionaries of the Bible.”
In the faint moonlight, “the bouquet on
the table assumed the dimensions and
shape of an imperial conveyance, a tri-
umphant car, drawn by . . . creatures
known only to mythology.”

Mushrooms have apparently been
ceremonially employed in Mesoamerica
for many centuries. Several early sources
have suggested that Mayan languages in
Guatemala had mushrooms named for
the underworld. Miniature mushroom
stones, 2,200 years of age, have been
found in archaeological sites near Gua-
temala City, and it has been postulated
that stone mushroom effigies buried
with a Mayan dignitary suggested a
connection with the Nine Lords of the
Xibalba, described in the sacred book

Popol Vuh. Actually, more than two
hundred mushroom stone effigies have
been discovered, the oldest dating from
the first millennium b. C. Although the
majority are Guatemalan, some have
been unearthed in El Salvador and Hon-
duras and others as far north as Vera-
cruz and Guerrero in Mexico. It is now
clear that whatever the use of these
“mushroom stones,” they indicate the
great antiquity of a sophisticated sacred
use of hallucinogenic mushrooms.

A superb statue of Xochipilli, Aztec
Prince of Flowers, from the early six-
teenth century, was recently discovered
on the slopes of the volcano Mt. Popo-
catepetl (see illustration, p. 62). His face
is in ecstasy, as though seeing visions in
an intoxication; his head is slightly
tilted, as though hearing voices. His
body is engraved with stylized flowers
that have been identified as sacred, most
of them inebriating, plants. The pedestal
on which he sits is decorated with a de-
sign representing cross-sections of the
caps of Psilocybe aztecorum, a halluci-
nogenic mushroom known only from

O J

“The ninos santos (Psilo-
cybe mexicana ) heal.

They lower fevers, cure
colds, and give freedom
from toothaches. They
pull the evil spirits out of
the body or free the spirit
of the sick.”

— Marfa Sabina

161

Right: A celebrant depicted in the
sixteenth-century Magliabecchiano
Codex is ingesting a pair of hallucino-
genic mushrooms during a sacred rite.
Behind him is the Lord of the Under-
world, Mictlantlcuhtli. The three jade
green mushrooms in front of the cele-
brant undoubtedly were painted in this
color to indicate their great value as
sacred objects.

jsL. '

rVd

era IG?

iii

Above: Albert Hofmann visited the sha-
man Marfa Sabina in 1 962 and took
many portraits of her.

Page 163: The sincerity and absolute
faith in the revelatory power of the
mushrooms is evident in these photo-
graphs of Marfa Sabina, who, during the
nightlong chanting and clapping cere-
mony, feels herself fully in contact with
the other world, which the mushrooms
have allowed her to visit.

this volcano. Thus Xochipilli undoubt-
edly represents not simply the Prince of
Flowers but more specifically the Prince
of Inebriating Flowers, including the
mushrooms that, in Nahuatl poetry,
were called “flowers” and “flowers that
intoxicate.”

Have psilocybine-containing mush-
rooms ever been employed as magico-
religious hallucinogens in the New
World? The answer is probably yes.

A species of Psilocybe and possibly
also Panaeolus are used today near the
classic Maya ceremonial center of
Palenque, and hallucinogenic mush-
rooms have been reported in use along
the border between Chiapas in Mexico
and Guatemala. Whether these mod-
ern mushroom practices in the Maya
region represent vestiges of former
use or have been recently introduced
from Oaxaca it is not possible as yet
to say.

Nevertheless, evidence is now accu-
mulating to indicate that a mushroom
cult flourished in prehistoric times —
from 100 b.c. to about a. d. 300-400 in
northwestern Mexico: in Colima, Jalis-
co, and Nayarit. Funerary effigies, with
two “horns” protruding from the head,
are believed to represent male and fe-
male “deities” or priests associated with
mushrooms. Traditions among contem-
porary Huichol Indians in Jalisco also
suggest the former religious use of these
fungi “in ancient times.”

What about South America, where
these psychoactive mushrooms abound?
There is no evidence of such use today,
but indications of their apparent former
employment are many. The Yurimagua
Indians of the Peruvian Amazon were
reported in the late seventeenth and
early eighteenth centuries to be drinking
a potently inebriating beverage made
from a “tree fungus.” The Jesuit report
stated that the Indians “mix mushrooms
that grow on fallen trees with a kind of
reddish film that is found usually at-
tached to rotting trunks. This film is

very hot to the taste. No person who
drinks this brew fails to fall under its ef-
fects after three draughts of it, since it is
so strong, or more correctly, so toxic.” It
has been suggested that the tree mush-
room might have been the psychoactive
Psilocybe yimgensis, which occurs in this
region.

In Colombia, many anthropomor-
phic gold pectorals with two domelike
ornaments on the head have been found.
They are in the so-called Darien style,
and the majority of them have been un-
earthed in the Sinu area of northwestern
Colombia and in the Calima region on
the Pacific coast. For lack of a better
term, they have been called “telephone-
bell gods,” since the hollow semi-
spherical ornaments resemble the bells
of old-fashioned telephones. It has been
suggested that they represent mush-
room effigies. The discovery of similar
artifacts in Panama and Costa Rica and
one in Yucatan might be interpreted to
suggest a prehistoric continuum of a
sacred mushroom cult from Mexico to
South America.

Farther to the south in South America,
there is archaeological evidence that
may suggest the religious importance
of mushrooms. Moche effigy stirrup
vessels from Peru, for example, have
mushroomlike cephalic ornaments.

While the archaeological evidence is
convincing, the almost complete lack of
reference in colonial literature to such
use of mushrooms, and the absence of
any known modern hallucinogenic use
of mushrooms among aboriginal groups
of South America, gives cause for cau-
tion in the interpretation of what other-
wise might easily be interpreted as
ancient mushroom effigies from south
of Panama. If, however, it becomes evi-
dent that the various archaeological
artifacts from South America men-
tioned above do represent hallucino-
genic mushrooms, then the area for
their significance in America will be
greatly amplified.

162

“I take the 'little one who springs up out of the earth’
(Psilocybe caerulescens) and I see God.

I see him springing up
out of the earth.”

— Maria Sabina

o 9 SALVIA DIVINORUM
® e - Hierba de la Pastora

DIVINER’S SAGE

Right: Salvia divinorum is easy to
recognize by its square stem.

Below: A paste made of the fresh leaves
of Salvia divinorum is chewed slowly,

Closely associated with the Indian
mushroom cults is the use of another
psychoactive plant, Hierba de la Pastora
(Salvia divinorum). It is not entirely
clear if it was used in the pre-Spanish
times. It is possible that it was the
Pipiltzintzintli of the Aztecs.

The male or female shamans of the
Mazatecs of Oaxaca use Salvia divinor-
um, which is also known as hoja de la

Page 165 top left: Painted nettle is used
by the Mazatecs as a replacement for
Salvia divinorum.

Page 165 top right: Coleus pumilus is
considered by the Mazatecs to be re-
lated to Salvia divinorum.

Page 165 middle: Salvia divinorum in
the Mexican rain forest.

pastora (leaf of the shepherd) or pas-
tora, in rituals associated with divina-
tion or healing, generally as a substitute
for the otherwise preferred psychoac-
tive mushrooms. Maria Sabina remar-
ked: “When I am in the time that there
are no mushrooms and want to heal
someone who is sick, then I must fall
back on the leaves of pastora. When
you grind them up and eat them, they
work just like the ninos. But, of course,
pastora has nowhere near as much po-
wer as the mushrooms.”

The ritual use is remarkably similar to
the use of mushrooms. Salvinia divi-
norum rituals take place at night in
complete darkness and stillness. Either
the healer is alone with the patient or
there are also other patients and possi-
bly some healthy participants present.
Before the shaman chews and sucks on
the leaves, they are held over some

burning Copal incense, and some
prayers are said to consecrate the leaves.
After chewing the leaves, the partici-
pants lie down and remain as still and
silent as possible. Salvia rituals last
barely longer than one to two hours, as
the effects of the leaves last a signifi-
cantly shorter time than those of mush-
rooms. If the visions are strong enough,
the healer finds the cause of the illness,
or some other problem. He or she gives
the patient appropriate advice and ends
the meeting.

Salvia divinorum, which is also known
as Aztec sage, is native to the Mazatec
areas of the Sierra Madre Oriental in
the Mexican state of Oaxaca. It grows
naturally in tropical rain forests in an
altitude of three hundred to eighteen
hundred meters. Salvia divinorum, be-
cause of its limited geographic habitat,
belongs to the rarest of psychoactive

164

plants, but is cultivated by plant lovers
all over the world. This reproduction is
achieved with cuttings.

The Mazatecs take thirteen pairs of
fresh leaves (twenty-six leaves alto-
gether) and twist them into a kind of ci-
gar or chaw, which is put into the mouth
and sucked or chewed. The juice is not
swallowed, but the active ingredients
are absorbed through the mucous mem-
branes in the side of the mouth. For one
of these cigars, it takes at least six fresh
leaves, but one can use eight or ten
leaves for a stronger effect. The effects
with the chewing method begin in al-
most exactly ten minutes and last ap-
proximately forty-five minutes.

The dried leaves can also be smoked.
With this method, half of a fairly large
leaf (two or three deep inhalations) in-
duces a strong psychoactive reaction.
Generally, one or two leaves are smoked.

Most people who have smoked,
chewed, or taken a tincture of Salvia di-
vinorum report very bizarre, unusual
psychoactive effects, which are not very
comparable with euphoric or psychede-
lic substances. There is often perceived
to be a “bending” of space; and a feeling
of swaying or out-of-body experiences
is also typical.

In the traditional taxonomy of the
Mazatecs, Salvia divinorum is related
to two forms of labiates. Salvia is known
as the “mother” (la hembra). Coleus pu-
milus is considered to be the “father” (el
macho), and Coleus blumei is known as
el nene (the child) and el ahiajado, the
godchild. The fresh leaves are used just
as those of Salvia divinorum — that is,
they are chewed like chewing tobacco.
This connection gives the Coleus the re-
putation of being psychoactive plants.

The Chemistry of Salvia divinorum

The leaves contain the neocerodan-diterpenes salvinorin A and salvinorin B
(also known as divinorin A and divinorin B), as well as two other, similar sub-
stances that have not yet been precisely identified. The main ingredient is
salvinorin A (chemical formula: C 2 3H 2 80 8 ), which has extreme conscious-
ness-altering effects with amounts as small as 150-500mg. Salvinorin is not
an alkaloid. It was first described by Ortega et al. by the name of salvinorin
(1982). Later, Valdes et al. described it under the name of divinorin A (1984).
The neurochemistry of salvinorin is still an unsolved puzzle. The ingredients
have not bound to any receptors in any receptor tests (the NovaScreen meth-
od). The plant also contains loliolid.

What Was Pipiltzintzintli?

The ancient Aztecs knew and used a plant called Pipiltzintzintli (the purest
little prince) very similarly to the use of Psilocybe mexicana in entheogenic
rituals. There are masculine and feminine forms of this plant, macho and
hembra. In the National Archives in Mexico City, there are Inquisition files
from the years 1 696, 1 698, and 1 706 that mention Pipiltzintzin and hint at its
intoxicating effects. Various authors have taken this to be Salvia divinorum.

165

94 ™“ EREUS CACTUS OF THE FOUR WINDS

Above left: Pieces of San Pedro piled up
for sale in the “witches' market’’ in
Chiclayo in northern Peru.

Above right: The fast-growing San
Pedro cactus develops few, if any,
thorns when cultivated.

San Pedro has a special symbolism in
curanderismo [folk healing] for a rea-
son: San Pedro is always in tune with
. . . the powers of animals, of strong per-
sonages or beings, of serious beings, of
beings that have supernatural power. . .”
The San Pedro cactus, Trichocerens
pachanoi , represents undoubtedly one
of the most ancient of the magic plants
of South America. The oldest archaeo-
logical evidence, a Chavln stone carving
in a temple in northern Peru, goes back
to 1300 b.c. Almost equally old textiles
from Chavin depict the cactus with ja-
guar and hummingbird figures. Peru-
vian ceramics made between 1000 and
700 b. c. show the plant in association
with the deer; and others, several hun-
dred years later, have the cactus with
the jaguar and stylized spirals illustrat-
ing the hallucinogenic experiences in-
duced by the plant. On the southern
coast of Peru, large ceramic urns of the
Nazca culture, dated 100 b.c.-a.d. 500,
depict San Pedro.

The use of Trichocerens was wide-
spread in Peru when the Spanish ar-
rived. One ecclesiastical report said that
shamans “drink a beverage they call
Achuma which is a water they make
from the sap of some thick and smooth

cacti ...” and “as it is very strong, after
they drink it they remain without judg-
ment and deprived of their senses, and
they see visions that the devil represents
to them ...” As with Peyote in Mexico,
the Roman Church fought against the
San Pedro cactus: “This is the plant with
which the devil deceived the Indians
in their paganism, using it for their lies
and superstitions . . . those who drink
lose consciousness and remain as if
dead; and it has even been seen that
some have died because of the great fri-
gidity to the brain. Transported by the
drink, the Indians dreamed a thousand
absurdities and believed them as if they
were true ...”

The modern use of the San Pedro cac-
tus, along the coastal regions of Peru
and in the Andes of Peru and Bolivia,
has been greatly affected by Christian
influence — influences even in the name
applied to the plant, originating possi-
bly in the Christian belief that St. Peter
holds the keys to heaven. But the overall
context of the moon-oriented ritual sur-
rounding its use indicates that it is truly
an amalgan of pagan and Christian ele-
ments.

San Pedro is now employed to cure
sickness, including alcoholism and in-

166

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Top: The San Pedro cactus
(Trichocereus pachanoi).

Above left: The flowers of San Pedro
remain closed during the daytime.

Above right: In the early evening the
large flowers of the San Pedro blossom
in sumptuous splendor.

Far left: A species from the Trichocer-
eus genus that has not yet been
botanically categorized. It grows in
northwestern Argentina, where it is also
called San Pedro and used psycho-
actively.

sanity, for divination, to undo love
witchcraft, to counter all kinds of sor-
cery, and to ensure success in personal
ventures. It is only one — but the princi-
pal one— of many “magical” plants
known to and used by shamans and col-
lected near sacred lagoons high in the
Andes.

At these lagoons, shamans go annu-
ally for purification and to visit special
individuals, experts in sorcery and
“owners” of divine plants capable of
awaking, with San Pedro, supernatural
spiritual powers. Even the sick exert
themselves to make pilgrimages to these
remote holy places. It is thought that
the penitent may undergo a metamor-
phosis in these lagoons and that the
plants, especially San Pedro, from these
areas possess extraordinarily powerful
properties to cure illness and to influ-
ence witchcraft.

Shamans specify four “kinds” of the
cactus, distinguished by the number of
ribs: those with four ribs are rare and
considered to be the most potent, with
very special supernatural powers, since
the four ribs represent the “four winds”
and the “four roads.”

The cactus is known in northern coast-
al Peru as San Pedro, in the northern

Trichocereus contains as its main alkaloid mescaline, responsible for the vi-
sual hallucinogenic effects. From dried specimens of San Pedro, 2 percent
mescaline has been isolated. In addition, hordenine has also been detected.

The Chemistry of San Pedro

Top left: A ceramic pot from the Chimu
culture, a.d. 1200. The owl-faced
female depicted on this vessel is prob-
ably an herbalist and shaman; she holds
Huachuma (Trichocereus). Even today
in native markets, the women who sell
the hallucinogenic cactus are usually
both herbalists and shamans, and
according to native beliefs, the owl is
associated with these women.

Top right: There are many herbs called
“conduro” that belong to different gen-
era (for example, Lycopodium) and are
traditionally used as ingredients in the
San Pedro drink.

Middle: A north Peruvian curandero
(healer) sets up his “mesa” for the San
Pedro ritual on the banks of Shimbe
Lake.

Below right : The mesa is surrounded by
magical staves. They are either from
pre-Columbian graves or modern repli-
cas made from the Amazonian Chonta
Palm.

Andean area as Huachuma, and in Boli-
via as Achuma; the Bolivian term chu-
marse (“to get drunk”) is derived from
Achuma. Aguacolla and Giganton are its
Ecuadorean names.

The stems of the cactus, normally
purchased in the market, are sliced like
bread and boiled for up to seven hours
in water. After the drinking of San Ped-
ro, other medicinal herbs, the help of
which is frequently sought, begin to talk
to the shaman, activating his own “inner
power.” San Pedro may be taken alone,
but often other plants, separately boi-
led, are added and the drink is then
called Cimora. Among the numerous
plant additives employed are the An-
dean cactus Neoraimondia macrostibas,
a species of the amaranthaceous Iresine,
the euphorbiaceous Pedilanthus tithy-
maloides, and Isotoma longiflora of the
Campanulaceae. All of these plants, ex-
cept Iresine, may have biodynamic
principles. Iresine has the reputation of
curing “insanity.” Brugmansia aurea
and B. sanguined, two potent hallucino-
gens in their own right, are frequently
added.

Only in recent years has San Pedro
been correctly identified. In early che-
mical and psychiatric studies in Peru,
the cactus was misidentified as Opuntia
cylindrica. Only recently have studies
indicated the great significance of the
vegetal additives, an investigation that
deserves more attention. On occasion,
magic demands that other additives be
employed; powdered bones and ceme-
tery dust are commonly used to ensure
the effectiveness of the brew. As one ob-
server has stated: San Pedro is “the cat-
alyst that activates all the complex
forces at work in a folk healing session,
especially the visionary and divinatory
powers” of the shaman, who can make
himself the owner of another man’s
identity. But the magic of San Pedro
goes far beyond curing and divination,
for it is believed to guard houses like a
dog, whistling in an unearthly fashion
and forcing intruders to flee in terror.

The principal effects of Trichocereus
pachanoi have been described by a sha-
man: “. . . the drug first produces . . .
drowsiness or a dreamy state and a feel-
ing of lethargy ... a slight dizziness . . .
then a great ‘vision,’ a clearing of all the
faculties ... It produces a light numb-

168

ness in the body and afterward a tran-
quillity. And then comes detachment, a
type of visual force . . . inclusive of all
the senses . . . including the sixth sense,
the telepathic sense of transmitting one-
self across time and matter . . . like a
kind of removal of one’s thought to a
distant dimension.”

“Four-ribbed cacti . . . are considered

to be very rare and very lucky ... to

have special properties

because they correspond

to the ‘four winds’ and the ‘four

roads,’

supernatural powers associated with
the cardinal points ...”

— Douglas Sharon

During the ritual, participants are
“set free from matter” and engage in
flight through cosmic regions. It was
probably shamans who used the San
Pedro cactus that a Spanish officer in
Cuzco, Peru, described in the sixteenth
century: “Among the Indians, there
was another class of wizards, permitted
by the Incas to a certain degree, who
are like sorcerers. They take the form
they want and go a long distance
through the air in a short time; and
they see what is happening, they speak
with the devil, who answers them in
certain stones or in other things that
they venerate ...” Ecstatic magical
flight is still characteristic of the con-
temporary San Pedro ceremony: “San
Pedro is an aid which one uses to ren-
der the spirit more pleasant, more man-
ageable . . . One is transported across
time, matter, and distance in a rapid
and safe fashion ...”

The shaman may take the drug him-
self or give it only to the patient, or both
may take it. The aim of this shamanic
curing ritual is to make the patient
“bloom” during the night ceremony, to
make his subconscious “open like a
flower,” even like the night-blooming
Tnchocereus itself. Patients sometimes
are contemplative and calm, sometimes
break into dancing or even throw them-
selves writhing on the ground.

As with so many other hallucinogens*
here is a plant given by the gods to man
to help him experience an ecstasy —
separation of the soul from the body —
“in a very tenuous, simple fashion and
almost instantaneously.” This ecstasy
provides preparations for the sacred
flight that enables man to experience
mediation between his mortal existence
and the supernatural forces — an activity
establishing direct contact through this
plant of the gods.

Top left: Harvested and stored pieces
of San Pedro continue living and often
begin growing again after months, even
years.

Top right : The Wolf’s Milk plant (Pedi-
lanthus tithymaloides) is sometimes
added to the San Pedro drink in order to
strengthen its effects. Sometimes is has
been said that Pedilanthus is hallucino-
genic, but this has not been proved.

Above: The view of the mesa gives a
clear impression of the syncretic cos-
mology of the modern healer. Gods and
deities from different cultures lay next to
snail shells, archaeological objects, and
perfume bottles.

169

VINES OF THE SERPENT

40 IPOMOEA
Morning Glory

nr TURBINA
Ololiuqui

Top left: The Ololiuqui vine Turbina
corymbosa.

Top right: Flying Saucers are a favorite
cultivated strain of the enchanting
Morning Glory, Ipomoea violacea.

Above: An early painting of Ololiuqui
from Sahagun’s Historia de las Cosas
de Nueva Espaha, written in the second
half of the sixteenth century, clearly de-
picts the plant as a Morning Glory.

Four centuries ago, a Spanish mission-
ary in Mexico wrote: “Ololiuqui . . . de-
prives all who use it of their reason . . .
The natives communicate in this way
with the devil, for they usually talk
when they become intoxicated with
Ololiuqui, and they are deceived by var-
ious hallucinations which they attribute
to the deity which they say resides in
the seeds ...”

A recent report indicates that Ololiu-
qui has not lost its association with the
deity in Oaxaca: “Throughout these re-
ferences we see two cultures in a duel to
death [the Spanish and the Indians]
[with] the tenacity and wiles of the In-
dians defending their cherished Ololiu-
qui. The Indians seem to have won out.
Today in almost all the villages of Oax-
aca one finds the seeds still serving the
natives as an ever present help in time of
trouble.” As with the sacred mush-
rooms, the use of the hallucinogenic
Morning Glories, so significant in the
life of pre-Hispanic Mexico, hid in the
hinterlands until the present century.

A Spanish report written shortly after
the Conquest stated that the Aztecs have
“an herb called coatl-xoxo uhqui [green
snake], and it bears a seed called Ololiu-
qui.” An early drawing depicts it as a
Morning Glory with congested fruits,
cordate leaves, a tuberous root, and a

twining habit. In 1651, the physician of
the king of Spain, Francisco Hernandez,
identified Ololiuqui as a Morning Glory
and professionally reported: “Ololiu-
qui, which some call Coaxihuitl or snake
plant, is a twining herb with thin, green,
cordate leaves; slender, green, terete
stems; and long, white flowers. The seed
is round and very much like coriander,
whence the name [in Nahuatl, the term
Ololiuqui means ‘round thing’] of the
plant. The roots are fibrous and slender.
The plant is hot in the fourth degree. It
cures syphilis and mitigates pain which
is caused by chills. It relieves flatulency
and removes tumors. If mixed with a lit-
tle resin, it banishes chills and stimulates
and aids in a remarkable degree in cases
of dislocations, fractures, and pelvic
troubles in women. The seed has some
medicinal use. If pulverized or taken in
a decoction or used as a poultice on the
head or forehead with milk and chili, it is
said to cure eye troubles. When drunk, it
acts as an aphrodisiac. It has a sharp taste
and is very hot. Formerly, when the
priests wanted to commune with their
gods and to receive a message from
them, they ate this plant to induce a de-
lirium. A thousand visions and Satanic
hallucinations appeared to them. In its
manner of action, this plant can be com-
pared with Solarium maniacum of

170

Dioscorides. It grows in warm places in
the fields.”

Other early references stated that
“Ololiuqui is a kind of seed like the len-
til .. . produced by a species of ivy . .
when it is drunk, this seed deprives of
his senses him who has taken it, for it is
very powerful” and that “it will not be
wrong to refrain from telling where it
groes, for it matters little that this plant
be here described or the Spaniards be
made acquainted with it.” Another wri-
ter marveled: “It is remarkable how
much faith these natives have in the
seed, for . . . they consult it as an oracle
to learn many things . . . especially those
. . . beyond the power of the human

The Chemistry of the Ololiuqui

Lysergic acid alkaloids are the hallucinogenic compounds of Ololiuqui. They
are indole alkaloids that have also been isolated from Ergot. Lysergic acid
amide, also known as ergine, and lysergic acid hydroxyethylamide are the
main components of the alkaloid mixture in Ololiuqui. Their molecular ar-
rangement is shown on page 187. The tryptamine radical in the ring structure
of lysergic acid establishes its relationship with these ergoline alkaloids as
well as with the active principles of Psilocybe and of the brain hormone ser-
otonine.

LSD, lysergic acid diethylamide, a semi-synthetic compound, is the most
potent hallucinogen known today. It differs from lysergic acid amide only by
replacement of two hydrogen atoms for two ethyl groups (p. 187). The active
principle of Ololiuqui (hallucinogenic dose 2-5 mg), however, is about 100
times less potent than LSD (hallucinogenic dose 0.05 mg).

mind to penetrate . . . They consult it
through one of their deceiving doctors,
some of whom practice Ololiuqui
drinking as a profession ... If a doctor
who does not drink Ololiuqui wishes to
free a patient of some trouble, he advises
the patient himself to partake . . . The
doctor appoints the day and hour when
the drink must be taken and establishes
the reason for the patient’s drinking it.
Finally, the one drinking Ololiuqui . . .
must seclude himself in his room ... No
one must enter during his divination . . .
He . . . believes the Ololiuqui ... is
revealing what he wants to know. When
the delirium is passed, the doctor comes
out of seclusion reciting a thousand

Above left: The very woody trunk of the
Ololiuqui vine.

Above right: The capsules and seeds of
tpomoea violacea are characteristic.

Below : The European bindweed
Convolvulus tricolor also contains
psychoactive alkaloids, although there
is no knowledge of any traditional use.

Right: In South America the bindweed
Ipomoea carnea is used as an inebriant.
it also has the psychoactive alkaloid
ergotine.

Above: An ancient Indian Mother God-
dess and her priestly attendants with a
highly stylized vine of Ololiuqui, in one
of the murals from Teotihuacan, Mexico,
dated about a. d. 500. Hallucinogenic
nectar appears to flow from the blos-
soms of the plant, and “disembodied
eyes” and birds are other stylistic fea-
tures associated with hallucinogenic
intoxication.

fabrications . . . thus keeping the patient
deceived.” The confession of an Aztec
penitent illustrates the Ololiuqui asso-
ciation with witchcraft: “I have believed
in dreams, in magic herbs, in Peyote, in
Ololiuqui, in the owl . .

The Aztecs prepared a salve that they
employed in making sacrifices: “They
took poisonous insects . . . burned them
and beat the ashes together with the
foot of the ocotl. Tobacco, Ololiuqui
and some live insects. They presented
this diabolical mixture to their gods
and rubbed their bodies with it. When
thus anointed, they became fearless to
every danger.” Another reference as-
serted that “they place the mixture be-

fore their gods, saying that it is the food
of the gods . . . and with it they become
witch-doctors and commune with the
devil.”

In 1916, an American botanist sus-
pected erroneously that Ololiuqui was
a species of Datura. His reasons were
several: Datura ; was a well-known in-
toxicant; its flower resembled a Morn-
ing Glory; no psychoactive principle
was known from the Morning Glory
family; the symptoms of Ololiuqui in-
toxication resembled those caused by
Datura ; and “a knowledge of botany
has been attributed to the Aztecs which
they were far from possessing . . . The
botanical knowledge of the early Span-

172

[T ijCOR DE ANIS DULCE CON Ml El. DE ABEJXS

ish writers . . . was perhaps not much
more extensive.” This misidentification
was widely accepted.

Only in 1939 was identifiable mate-
rial of Turbina corymbosa collected
among the Chinantec and Zapotec of
Oaxaca, where it was cultivated for hal-
lucinogenic use. The Chinantec name
A-mu-kia means “medicine for divina-
tion.” Thirteen seeds are usually ground
up and drunk with water or in an alco-
holic beverage. Intoxication rapidly be-
gins and leads to visual hallucinations.
There may be an intervening stage of
giddiness, followed by lassitude, eu-
phoria, and drowsiness and a somnam-
bulistic narcosis. The Indian may be

Above: Depiction of Morning Glories
and visionary eyes on an ancient Indian
wall painting in Tepantitla (Teotihuacan).

Left: Xtabentun, "the Jewel Cordial” as it
is called, is made out of honey from the
Ololiuqui flower.

dimly aware of what is going on and is
susceptible to suggestions. The visions
are often grotesque, portraying people
or events. The natives say that the intox-
ication lasts three hours and seldom has
unpleasant aftereffects. Ololiuqui is ta-
ken at night and, in contrast to Peyote
and the mushrooms, is administered to a
single individual alone in a quiet, se-
cluded place.

The use of seeds of Turbina, corymbo-
sa has been recorded for the Chinantec,
Mazatec, and others in Oaxaca. They
are known in Oaxaca as Piule, although
each tribe has its own name for the
seeds.

The name Ololiuqui seems to have
been applied to several plants by the
Aztecs, but only one was psychoactive.
Of one, an early report states: “There is
an herb called Ololiuqui or Xixicamatic
which has leaves like miltomate [ Physa -
Us sp.] and thin, yellow flowers. The
root is round and as large as a cabbage.”
This plant could not be Turbina corym-
bosa, but its identity remains a mystery.
The third Ololiuqui, also called Hu-
eyytzontecon, was used medicinally as a
purgative, a characteristic suggesting
the Morning Glory family, but the plant
is not convolvulaceous.

Another Morning Glory, Ipomoea
violacea, was valued as a sacred halluci-
nogen among the Aztecs, who called
the seeds Tlitliltzin, from the Nahuatl
term for “black” with a reverential suf-
fix. The seeds of this Morning Glory
are elongate, angular, and black,
whereas those of Turbina corymbosa
are round and brown. One ancient re-
port mentions both, asserting that
Peyote, Ololiuqui, and Tlitliltzin are
all psychoactive. Ipomoea violacea is
used especially in the Zapotec and
Chatin area of Oaxaca, where it is
known as Badoh Negro or, in Zapotec,
Badungas. In some Zapotec villages
both Turbina corymbosa and Ipomoea
violacea are known; in others, only the
latter is used. The black seeds are often

174

Page 174 top: The Cuban stamp on the
left of Turbina corymbosa was issued at
Christmastime. T. corymbosa is very
abundant in the western part of the
island and flowers in December. The
Hungarian stamp on the right indicates
the horticultural importance of Ipomoea
violacea and its varieties.

called macho (“male”) and men take
them; the brown seeds, called hembra
(“female”), are ingested by women.
The black seeds are more potent than
the brown, according to the Indians,
an assertion borne out by chemical stu-
dies. The dose is frequently seven or a
multiple of seven; at other times, the
familiar thirteen is the dose.

As with Turbina , Badoh Negro seeds
are ground and placed in a gourd with
water. The solid particles are strained
out, and the liquid is drunk. Revelations
of the cause of illness or divinations are
provided during the intoxication by
“intermediaries” — the fantastical badu-
win, or two little girls in white who ap-
pear during the seance.

A recent report of the use of seeds of
Ipomoea violacea among the Zapotec
indicates that Badoh Negro is indeed a
significant element in the life of these
Indians: "... Divination about recovery
in sickness is also practiced by means of
a plant which is described as a narcotic.
This plant . . . grows in the yard ... of a
family who sells its leaves and seeds . . .
to administer to patients . . . The pa-
tient, who must be alone with the curer
if not in a solitary place where he cannot
hear even a cock’s crow, falls into a sleep
during which the little ones, male and
female, the plant children [bador], come
and talk. These plant spirits will also
give information about lost objects.”
The modern ritual with Morning Glory
seeds now has incorporated Christian
elements. Some of the names — Semilla
de la Virgen (“seed of the Virgin”) and
Hierba Maria (“Mary’s herb”) — show
union of the Christian with the pagan,
and clearly an indication that Turbina
corymbosa and Ipomoea violacea are
considered gifts from the gods.

Top: Left are the ocher-colored, some-
what round seeds of Turbina corym-
bosa. On the right are the black, angular
seeds of the Ipomoea violacea.

Above: The shaman administers the in-
fusion to a patient, assisted by a young
girl. The brew must be taken at night in a
secluded and quiet place. The patient's
problems will be diagnosed by the sha-
man from interpretation of what he says
while under the influence of the plants.

175

VIROLA

Epena

SEMEN OF THE SUN

Above: The seeds of Virola surinamen-
sis, called Ucuba, are used ethnome-
dicinally.

Below right: The most important spe-
cies of Virola in hallucinogenic prepara-
tions is V. theiodora, of the north-
western Amazon. Virola is an American
genus related to the Old World genus of
the Nutmeg. The tiny flowers of Virola
have a highly pungent fragrance.

At the beginning of time. Father Sun
practiced incest with his daughter, who
acquired Viho by scratching her father’s
penis. Thus the Tukano received this
sacred snuff from the sun’s semen, and
since it is still hallowed, it is kept in con-
tainers called muhipii-nuri, or “penis of
the sun.” This hallucinogen enables the
Tukano to consult the spirit world, espe-
cially Viho-mahse, the “snuff-person,”
who, from his dwelling in the Milky
Way, tends all human affairs. Shamans
may not contact other spiritual forces
directly but only through the good
graces of Viho-mahse. Consequently,
the snuff represents one of the most
important tools of thepaye or shamans.

Although the sixty species of Virola
are spread throughout tropical forests
of the New World and psychoactive
principles have been found in at least a
dozen species, it is only in the western
Amazon and adjacent parts of the Ori-
noco basin that this genus has been used
as the source of a sacred inebriant.

The species most important as sour-
ces of the intoxicating snuff are V. ca-
lophylla, V calophylloidea, V elongata,
and V. theiodora , the last being without
doubt the most frequently employed.
Yet locally, V. rufula, V cuspidata, and
other species may supply the drug.
There are Indians — the primitive noma-
dic Maku of the Rio Piraparana of Co-
lombia, for example — who ingest the
red “bark-resin” directly, with no pre-
paration, using V. elongata. Other tri-
bes, especially the Bora and Witoto,
swallow pellets made from the paste of
the “resin,” valuing for this purpose
V. peruviana, V. surinamensis, V. theio-
dora, and possibly V. loretensia. There
is vague evidence that shamans in Vene-
zuela may smoke the bark of V sebifera
“at dances when curing fevers” or that
they may boil the bark and drink the
liquor “to drive away evil spirits.”

“Sometimes when they travel or go
hunting, they say:

‘I must carry my Epena against those
spirits,

so that they do not persecute us.’

They take Epena in the night

if they hear the noises of those spirits
of the forest.

They inhale it to drive them away
• — Ettore Biocca

Although the mythological signifi-
cance and magico-religious use of Epe-
na snuff is indicative of a great age, the
drug was not known until very recently.

Perspicacious plant-explorer though
he was, Spruce failed to discover this
fundamental psychoactive use of Virola,
notwithstanding his special study of the
group that resulted in the discovery of a
number of species new to science. The
earliest reference to this hallucinogen
dates from the beginning of this cen-
tury, when a German ethnologist re-
ported on the Yekwana of the upper
Orinoco area.

It was not, however, until 1938 and
1939 that the botanical association of
Virola with the snuff was made. The
Brazilian botanist Ducke reported that
the leaves of V theiodora and V. cuspi-
data represented the source. The leaves,
of course, are never used, but this report
first focused attention on Virola, which,
until then, had never been suspected as a
hallucinogen.

176

Ebena, Nyakwana, or some variant of
these terms. In northwestern Brazil, this
snuff and others are often generically
known as Parica.

Unlike the Colombian Indians, among
whom the use of the snuff is usually re-
stricted to shamans, these tribes may of-
ten take the drug in daily life. All male
members of the group above the ages of
thirteen or fourteen may participate.
The hallucinogen is often snuffed in
frighteningly excessive amounts and, in
at least one annual ceremony, constantly
over a two- or three-day period.

The powder is prepared in a variety
of ways. Among the Colombian In-
dians, the bark is stripped from the trees
in the early morning and the soft inner
layers are scraped. The shavings are
kneaded in cold water for twenty min-
utes. The brownish liquid is then fil-
tered and boiled down to a thick syrup
that, when dried, is pulverized and
mixed with ashes of the bark of a wild
cacao tree.

The various groups of Waika have sev-
eral other methods of preparation.
Those living in the Orinoco area fre-
quently rasp the cambial layer of the
bark and trunk and gently dry the shav-
ings over a fire so that they may be stored
for future use. When a supply of the drug
is needed, the shavings are wetted and
boiled for half an hour or more, the re-
sulting liquid being reduced to a syrup
that, after drying, is ground to a powder
and finely sifted. This dust is then mixed
with equal amounts of a powder pre-
pared from the dried, aromatic leaves of

Above left: Leaf, flowers, and young fruit
of the rain forest tree Virola calophylla.

Above right: A branch of Virola theio-
dora with flowers.

The first detailed description and spe-
cific identification of the drug, however,
was published in 1954 when its prepara-
tion and use among medicine men of
Colombian Indians was described. Ta-
ken mainly by shamans among the Bar-
asana, Makuna, Tukano, Kabuyare,
Kuripako, Puinave, and other tribes in
eastern Colombia, the drug was em-
ployed ritualistically for diagnosis and
treatment of disease, prophecy, divina-
tion, and other magico-religious pur-
poses. At that time, Vi calophylla and
Vi calophylloidea were indicated as the
species most valued, but later work in
Brazil and elsewhere has established
the primacy of Vi theiodora.

Recent field studies have shown that
the psychoactive snuff is used among
many Indian groups in Amazonian Co-
lombia, the uppermost Orinoco basin
of Colombia and Venezuela, the Rio
Negro, and other areas of the western
Amazon of Brazil. The southernmost
locality of its known use is among the
Paumare Indians of the Rio Purus in
the southwestern Amazon of Brazil.

The snuff is apparently most highly
prized and most deeply involved in
aboriginal life among the sundry Indian
tribes collectively called Waika in the
upper Orinoco of Venezuela and the
northern affluents of the Rio Negro of
Brazil. These groups are variously
named, but are most commonly known
to anthropologists as the Kirishana,
Shiriana, Karauetare, Karime, Parahure,
Surara, Pakidai, and Yanomamo. They
generally refer to the snuff as Epena,

177

Once a year, Waika Indians in north-
eastern Brazil come together from miles
around for an endocannibalistic cere-
mony for which a huge quantity of Virola
snuff is made and consumed. The
ceremony held in typical round houses
commemorates the dead of the pre-
vious year.

a small plant, Justicia pectoralis var. ste-
nophylla, cultivated for this purpose. Fi-
nally, a third ingredigjt is added: the
ashes of the bark o-f^pc^ma or Amasita,
a beautiful and ri |hnous tree, Eli-

zabetha princepb^ujteO : pard outer bark,
cut into small pieces, is placed in glowing
embers, then removed and allowed to
smolder to ashes.

In more eastern areas of Waika coun-
try in Brazil, the preparation of the
snuff takes place mainly in the forest.
Trees are felled and long strips of bark
are peeled from the trunk. A copious
flow of liquid that rapidly turns a blood
red accumulates on the inner surface of
the bark. After gently heating the strips,
the shaman gathers the “resin” into an
earthenware pot that is set on the fire.
When the pot of red liquid is reduced
to a thick syrup, it is sun-dried, crystal-
lizing into a beautiful amber-red- solid
that is meticulously ground to an extre-
mely fine dustlike consistency. This
powder — Nyakwana snuff — may be
employed directly, but usually the pul-
verized leaves of Justicia are added “to
make it smell better.”

The Bora, Muinane, and Witoto In-
dians of Amazonian Colombia and ad-

jacent Peru use Virola not as a snuff,
but by oral administration. They ingest
small pellets or pills made from the re-
sin to induce an intoxication during
which the medicine men communicate
with the “little people.” These Indians
utilize several species: V. theiodora,

Vi pavonis, and V. elongata, as well as
possibly Vi surinamensis and Vi loreten-
sis. The Bora of Peru indicate that they
have used a related myristicaceous ge-
nus, Iryanthera macrophylla, as the
source of a narcotic paste for making
the pellets.

The Witoto of Colombia completely
decorticate the trunk of a Virola tree.
The shiny cambial layer on the inner
surface of the bark and adhering to the
bare trunk is rasped off with the back
of a machete, and the raspings are care-
fully collected in a gourd. This material
gradually darkens to a brownish red.
The still moist raspings are kneaded,
squeezed repeatedly, and pressed over
a wicker sieve. The liquid that oozes
through, primarily of cambial sap, has
a light “coffee and milk” hue. Without
further preparation, this liquid is
quickly boiled, possibly to inactivate
enzymes that might destroy the active

178

Waika Indians consume incredible
amounts of Virola powder, using large
snuffing tubes made of the stems of
maranthaceous plants. The tubes are
filled with three to six teaspoonfuls of
snuff for each inhalation.

After a stage of hyperactivity and stimulation dur-
ing which the participants who have inhaled the
snuff engage the hekuta spirits, a period of dis-
turbed somnolescence sets in during which night-
marish visual hallucinations continue (left).

Waika shamans frequently employ Virola snuff

or Epena in ritual curing (below left). The intricate
relationship between magico-religious and "med-
icinal” practices of these peoples makes it difficult
to distinguish the boundaries of the supernatural
and the pragmatic. In fact, the Indian himself does
not make a distinction between these two areas.

principles, and is then allowed to sim-
mer, with frequent stirring, until its
volume is reduced. When the liquid
finally becomes pasty, the vessel is
taken from the fire, and the paste is
rolled into pellets for immediate use.
These pellets may keep their potency,
according to the natives, for about two
months.

When the pellets are not for imme-
diate consumption, they are usually
coated with a “salt,” as the natives say,
prepared from any of numerous plants.
The “salt” is always made by the same
process. The plant material is first
burned and the ashes are placed in a
crude funnel made of leaves or bark.
Water seeps slowly through the ashes,
dripping out through a hole at the bot-
tom to be collected beneath. The filtrate
is then boiled down until a gray-white
residue or “salt” remains. The pellets of
sticky resin are rolled in this powder.
There is apparently a large assortment
of plants employed for this “salt,”
which the Witoto call Le-sa. The le-
cvthidaceous Gustavia poeppigiana is a
common source of the ashes for the fil-
tration. In the same family, the bark of
the huge tree Eschweilera itayensis is va-

lued. An unidentified tree of this family,
known to the natives as Cha-pe-na, is
used. The woody stump of a species of
Carludovica or Sphaeradenia of the Cy-
clanthaceae is reduced to ashes for this
purpose. The leaves and fragrant inflor-
escence of the aroid Spathiphyllum can-
naefolium give an ash that leaches out a
high-quality “salt.” The bark of a wild
species of Theobroma, or several small
palms, probably species of Geonoma
and Bactris, are similarly used.

The Bora of Peru strip pieces of
bark, only from the lower four to
eight ft (1.5-2. 5 m) of the trunk. The

A Mahekototen shaman (above) strug-
gling against death, an ever-present
threat. The Waika believe that commu-
nication with the spirit world occurring
during Virola intoxication enables the
shaman to stave off death, which they
explain as the result of the activity of
malevolent spirits.

The Chemistry of Epena

The chemical analysis of various Virola snuffs revealed about a half-dozen
closely related indole alkaloids belonging to the simple, open-chained or
closed-ring tryptamine derivatives with a tetrahydro-[3-carboline system. The
main constituents of these snuffs are 5 -methoxy-A/,A/-dimethyltryptamine
and Dimethyltryptamine. 6-methoxy-/V,A/-dimethyltryptamine, monomethyl-
tryptamine, and 2-methyl- and 1 ,2-dimethyl-6-methoxy-tetrahydro-(3-carbo-
line usually occur only in trace amounts. The alkaloid mixtures are almost
identical to those isolated from the Anadenanthera snuff powders.

179

This is a magical snuff . . . prepared from the bark of a certain tree
the sorcerer blows a little . . . through a reed . . . into the air.
Next he snuffs, whilst ... he absorbs the powder
into each nostril successively . . ,
immediately the witch doctor begins singing and yelling wildly,
all the while pitching the upper part of his body
backwards and forwards.”

— Theodor Koch-Griinbers (1923)

ZtiZABETtiJ^

jyxincejus

}['(!, ScfimnS. ex Btk

■ JUSTlClJc

! N jieetcrrXvs Jaccjuin^
j tX var. stenopfnjLbi Leonard

hard, brittle outer layer of bark is
chipped off, leaving only the softer in-
ner phloem. This layer quickly turns
brown from congealed oxidized “resin”
and is vigorously pounded on a log
with a mallet until it is shredded. These
shredded sections are soaked in water
with occasional kneading for half an
hour or more, when the pot is brought
to a vigorous boil for another half hour.
The bark material, squeezed dry, is
then removed, and the remaining liquid
is boiled with constant stirring until
only a thick paste remains. Small pellets
for ingestion are then made from this

to be present mainly in the almost col-
orless exudate from the inner surface of
the bark, which appears as soon as the
bark is stripped from the tree. This re-
sinlike substance quickly turns reddish
in a typical oxidase-type reaction and
then darkens, drying to a hard, glossy
mass.' In specimens dried for chemical
study, it appears as a sticky, dark reddish
brown gummy material. This material
in many species contains tryptamines
and other indolic hallucinogens. Obser-
vation of the process indicates that the
reason for scraping the surface of the
bark is to obtain all traces of the cambial

P aste - layer that adhere to it. The drug is pre-

Fewer plants are used by the Bora for pared from the cambial sap, which is

preparing the “salt” for coating the pel- quickly boiled, causing coagulation of

lets: the leaves and stump of a species of protein and possibly polysaccharides,
Carludovica and of a palm of the genus and then simmered slowly to reduce
Scheelea. the volume to near dryness.

The hallucinogenic principles appear The whole process resembles that

180

Page 180 left, top to bottom: The Waika
carefully pick over the leaves of Justicia
before drying them as an additive to the
Virola snuff.

One method of preparing Virola snuff
starts with the accumulation of the red,
resinlike liquid on the inner bark and its
solidification by heat (as shown in the
photograph of a Waika Indian).

A Witoto Indian beats the syrup left
after boiling down Virola resin.

Page 180 middle and right: Justicia
leaves are highly aromatic when dried
and are, on occasion, added to Virola
snuff. They may, however, also be the
source of a hallucinogenic snuff.

Among the Waika, the invariable ashes
mixed with Virola powder come from the
burning of the bark of a beautiful but rare
tree, Elizabetha princeps.

is. s

used for isolation of natural products
from the cambium of other trees, con-
iferine from gymnosperms, for exam-
ple, except that ethyl alcohol or acetone
is now used, rather than heat, to de-
stroy enzyme activity, which might
otherwise act adversely on the desired
product.

The “resin” of Virola plays an impor-
tant role in everyday native medicine:
several species are valued as antifungal
medicines. The resin is spread over in-
fected areas of the skin to cure ringworm
and similar dermatological problems of
fungal origin that are so prevalent in the
humid tropical rain forests. Only certain
species are chosen for this therapeutic
use — a nd the choice seems not to have
any relationship to the hallucinogenic
properties of the species.

Indians who are familiar with Virola
trees from the point of view of their

hallucinogenic potency exhibit uncanny
knowledge of different “kinds” — which
to a botanist appear to be indistinguish-
able as to species. Before stripping the
bark from a trunk, they are able to pre-
dict how long the exudate will take to
turn red, whether it will be mild or
peppery to the tongue when tasted,
how long it will retain its potency
when made into snuff, and many other
hidden characteristics. Whether these
subtle differences are due to age of the
tree, season of the year, ecological si-
tuations, conditions of flowering or
fruiting, or other environmental or
physiological factors it is at present im-
possible to say — but there is no doubt
about the Indian’s expertness in recog-
nizing these differences, for which he
often has a terminology, so significant
in his hallucinogenic and medicinal use
of the trees.

Above left: Indians under Virola intoxi-
cation characteristically have faraway,
dreamlike expressions that are, of
course, due to the active principles of
the drug, but which the natives believe
are associated with the temporary ab-
sence of the shamans’ souls as they
travel to distant places. The chants dur-
ing the incessant dancing performed by
shamans may at times reflect conver-
sations with spirit forces. This transpor-
tation of the soul to other realms repre-
sents to the Waika one of the most
significant values of the effects of this
hallucinogen.

Above right: The leaves of Justicia pec-
toralis var. stenophylla are an important
ingredient in the snuff that is made from
the Virola.

181

o -r DUBOISIA
Pituri Bush

GATEWAY TO DREAMTIME

Above: Pituri bushes are represented by
the gray dots on this painting by Abori-
ginal artist Walangari Karntawarra Ja-
kamarra (detail from oil painting, 1994).

The psychoactive use of Pituri is prob-
ably the longest continuous use of a
psychoactive substance in the history
of humanity. The Australian Aborigines
have the longest continuous culture of
the world. The ancestors of todays
Aborigines chewed Pituri 40,000 to
60,000 years ago.

Pituri refers in the broadest sense to all
plants or plant materials with additional
ingredients that are used for hedonistic
or magical purposes by the Australian
Aborigines. Generally, the term Pituri
refers to a plant from the nightshade
family, Duboisia hopwoodii.

Usually, the Pituri leaves are mixed
with alkaline plant ashes and chewed
like chewing tobacco. Pituri removes
hunger and thirst and induces intense
dreams, which is probably why the
Aborigines use Pituri as a magic sub-
stance. In the Aboriginal magic, enter-
ing the dream state, the transcendent

Below: The trunk of the Pituri bush.

182

The Chemistry of Pituri

primal condition of being is an essential
concept. This dream state is an altered
state of consciousness.

In this dream state, all magical
processes and acts affect the "normal
consciousness.” It seems as if there are
various types of Pituri for various uses
and each of these varieties is linked with
various songs, totems, and appropriate
“dream songs” or “songlines.” There
are some songlines that are sung as
“Pituri-songs.” Pituri has a connection
to the place that it grows. There is even
a Pituri clan. Pituri carries with it the
“dream of the place” where it grows
and can instill it into humans.

The Pituri bush (Duboisia hopwoo-
dii) was described by the German-
Australian- botanist Ferdinand J. H.
von Muller (1825-1896). The plants, as
well as the dried or fermented leaves,
play a significant role in the domestic

Duboisia hopwoodii contains various strongly stimulating but also toxic alka-
loids (piturin, D-nor-nicotine and nicotine): D-nor-nicotine seems to be the
main active substance, and myosimin, A/-formylnornicotine, cotinin, A/-acetyl-
nornicotine, anabasine, anabatin, anatalline, and bipyridyl are also present.

The hallucinogenic tropanalkaloid hyoscyamine has been discovered in the
roots, as well as traces of scopalamine, nicotine, nornicotine, metanicotine,
myosmine, and A/-formylnornicotine. Duboisia myoporoides contains large
quantities of scopolamine.

Plants Whose Ashes Are Added to Pituri

Protaceae

Grevillea striata R. BR. (Ijinyja)
Mimosaceae (Leguminosae)

Acacia aneura F. Muell. ex Benth. (Mulga)
Acacia coriacea DC. (Awintha)

Acacia kempeana F. Muell. (Witchitty bush)
Acacia lingulata A. Cunn. ex. Benth.

Acacia pruinocarpa
Acacia saiicina Lindley
Caesalpiniaceae (Leguminosae)

Cassia spp.

Rhamnaceae

VentHago viminalis Hook. (Atnyira)

Myrtaceae

Eucalyptus microtheca F. Muell. (Angkirra)
Eucalyptus spp. (Gums)

Eucalyptus sp. (Red gum)

Melaleuca sp.

economy as a valuable good for barter.
Although Duboisia hopwoodii is wide-
spread in Australia, some areas are bet-
ter for collection and harvesting than
others. The leaves are filled with the
power of the land in which they grow.
Before the Aborigines had contact with
Europeans, there was a far-reaching
trading system in the central desert,
which gave rise to the so-called Pituri
roads and paths.

Various additives are mixed with the
dried or fermented leaves and chewed.
One will use plant ashes, another uses
animal hair to hold the material to-
gether: plant fibers, yellow ochre, euca-
lyptus resin, and, most recently, sugar.
The effects of the various Pituri pre-
parations differ markedly. Some are
arousing, while others are weak stimu-
lants; some are euphoric, while others
can induce visions.

Top: The Pituri bush.

Middle: The fermented Pituri leaves.

Bottom: The Goodenia is a Pituri repla-
cement for the leaves of Duboisia
hopwoodii. Plants of the genus Goode-
nia are ethnobotanically significant
medicinal and nutritional plants for the
Aborigines.

183

CHEMICAL STRUCTURES OF HALLUCINOGENS

Chemical determination of the molecular struc-
ture of the hallucinogenic principles in sacred
plants has led to remarkable results.

Almost all plant hallucinogens contain the ele-
ment nitrogen and therefore belong to the large
class of chemical compounds known as alkaloids.

divinorum are the most significant examples that
do not contain nitrogen. The main active principle
of Cannabis is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC),
while the main active principle of Salvia divinor-
um is salvinorin.

The principal plant hallucinogens are closely

related in their chemical structure to hormones
present in the brain — that is, to physiological
agents that play a role in the biochemistry of men-
tal functions.

The active principle in the Peyote cactus is the
alkaloid mescaline, a compound closely related
to the brain-hormone norepinephrine (noradre-
naline). Norepinephrine belongs to the group
of physiological agents known as neurotransmit-
ters because they function in the chemical trans-
mission of impulses between neurons (nerve

Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)

The term alkaloid is used by chemists for the ni-
trogenous metabolic products of plants that have
alkaline properties and are therefore “alkali-like”
(alkaloid). Among the more important plants with
psychoactive properties, only Hemp and Salvia

184

The molecular models of hallucinogens on pages 186-87 show the che-
mical elements of which these substances consist and the manner in
which the atoms of these elements are related to one another in the
molecules. The black balls mean carbon atoms, the white hydrogen, the
red oxygen, the green nitrogen, and the yellow ball in the psilocybine
molecule indicates a phosphoric atom. There is, in fact, no space be-
tween atoms connected with each other; they touch. Moreover, atoms of
various elements are of different sizes. Only the especially small size of
the hydrogen atoms has been indicated in these models.

It is hardly possible to imagine the real dimension of atoms and
molecules: 0.1 mg (a tenth of a thousandth of a gram) of a hallucinogen,
barely visible, consists of about 2 x 1 0' 7 (= 200,000,000,000,000,000)

•!

cells). Mescaline and norepinephrine have the
same basic chemical structure. Both are deri-
vatives of a substance known to chemists as
phenylethylamine. Another derivative of pheny-
lethylamine is the essential amino acid phenyla-

Recent studies show differences in the internal structure of wood between
Cannabis sativa (far left) and C. indica. As shown in these microscopic cross-
sections, one of the most significant differences is the usually single condu-
cive vessels in the former species as contrasted with the consistently grouped
vessels in the latter.

THC, found only in Cannabis, is concentrated in the resin and is absent
from the woody tissue, which for this reason is specifically exempted from
control in American Cannabis legislation.

lanine, which is widely distributed in the human
organism.

The models of mescaline and noradrenaline
molecules on page 186 clearly show the close re-
lationship in chemical structure of these two
agents.

Psilocybine and psilocine, the active principles
of Teonanacatl, the hallucinogenic Mexican mush-
rooms, are derived from the same basic compound
as the brain hormone serotonine: tryptamine.
Tryptamine also is the basic compound of an es-
sential amino acid, which is tryptophane. The re-
lationship can be clearly seen in the molecular
models shown on page 186.

There is another Mexican sacred plant, Ololiu-
qui (Morning Glory), the hallucinogenic princi-
ples of which are derivatives of tryptamine. In
this case, tryptamine is incorporated in a complex
ring structure that has been called ergolin. The
molecular models on page 187 show the structur-
al relationship between lysergic acid amide and
lysergic acid hydroxyethylamide (the two prin-
cipal active constituents of Ololiuqui), the neu-
rotransmitter serotonine, and psilocybine and
psilocine.

That the important plant hallucinogens and the
brain hormones serotonine and noradrenaline
have the same basic structure cannot be due to
mere chance. This astounding relationship may
explain the psychotropic potency of these halluci-
nogens. Having; the same basic structure, these
hallucinogens may act at the same sites in the ner-
vous system as the above-mentioned brain hor-
mones, like similar keys fitting the same lock. As
a result, the psychophysiological functions asso-
ciated with those brain sites are altered, sup-
pressed, stimulated, or otherwise modified.

The ability of hallucinogens to produce changes
in brain function is due not only to their having a
particular chemical composition, but also to the
peculiar spatial arrangement of the atoms in their
molecules. This can be seen very clearly in the case
of the most powerful hallucinogen known today,
lysergic acid diethylamide. LSD may be regarded
as a chemically modified form of an active princi-
ple in Ololiuqui. The only difference between the
semi-synthetic drug lysergic acid diethylamide
and the natural Ololiuqui hallucinogen lysergic
acid amide is that two hydrogen atoms of the

185

Peyotl (Lophophora williamsii)

amide have been replaced in the diethylamide by
two ethyl groups. With LSD, a dose of 0.05 milli-
gram will produce a deep hallucinogenic intoxica-
tion of some hours’ duration. With iso-LSD,
which differs from LSD only in the spatial ar-
rangement of the atoms, ten times that dose has
no effect whatsoever.

The molecular models of LSD and iso-LSD on
page 187 show that, while the atoms are linked to
each other in the same way, their spatial arrange-
ment is different.

Molecules differing only in spatial arrangement
are known as stereoisomers. Stereoisomers can
exist only with molecules that are asymmetrical
in structure, and one of the theoretically possible
spatial arrangements is in general more active.

Noradrenaline
(a brain hormone)

Next to chemical composition, spatial configura-
tion plays the most crucial role in determining not
only hallucinogenic but also general pharmacolo-
gical activity.

(hallucinogenic principle of Teonanacatl)

Psilocybine

(hallucinogenic principle of Teonanacatl)

Mescaline

(vision-causing hallucinogenic principle of
Peyote)

186

Dr. Albert Hofmann, born 1906, discoverer of
LSD and the hallucinogenic principles of Teona-
nacatl and of Ololiuqui, is shown here with the
molecular model of LSD in his pharmaceutic-
chemical research laboratory, Sandoz, Basel,
Switzerland, 1943.

Page 186: The comparison between Mescaline
and Noradrenaline and between Psilocybine and
Psilocine with Serotonine shows the relationship
in the chemical structure between the hallucino-
gens and brain hormones.

The close chemical relationship between the
active principles of Ololiuqui and LSD, the most
potent hallucinogen known today, is evident
when comparing the molecular models of Lyser-
gic Acid Amide and Lysergic Acid Hydroxyethy-
lamide with Lysergic Acid Diethylamide.

Lysergic Acid Hydroxyethylamide
(hallucinogenic principle of
Ololiuqui)

Lysergic acid amide
(hallucinogenic principle of
Ololiuqui)

iso-LSD

(semi-synthetic compound)

LSD

(semi-synthetic hallucinogen)

Serotonine
(a brain hormone)

The active properties of hallucinogens are due
not only to their composition with certain atoms;
the spatial arrangement of the atoms in the
molecule is equally important in determining
the hallucinogenic effects. As an example, LSD
and iso-LSD (at right) consist of the same ele-
ments, but they differ in the spatial arrangement
of the diethylamide group. In comparison to
LSD, iso-LSD is practically without hallucino-
genic effect.

USES OF HALLUCINOGENS IN MEDICINE

The use of pure hallucinogenic compounds in
medicine has the same basis as the use of the
source plants in magico-rehgious ceremonies.
The effects in both cases consist of profound psy-
chic alterations in the experience of reality. Not
only is perception of the outside world affected,

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but perception of the subject’s own personality is
also transformed. The changes in sensory experi-
ence of the outside world are due to a shift in sen-
sitivity of the sense organs. Sensory perception,
particularly with regard to vision and hearing, is
stimulated by hallucinogens. These changes in
self-awareness indicate the profound influence of
the drugs, which affect the very core of our being:
consciousness.

Our experience of reality is incomprehensible

without a subject, an ego, that perceives this rea-
lity. The subjective experience of so-called objec-
tive reality is the result of interactions between
external sensory signals, mediated by the sense or-
gans, and the ego, which brings this information
to the level of conscious awareness. In this situa-
tion, one can think of the external world as a sen-
der of information or signals and the deep self as a
receiver. The translator in this case is the ego. In
the absence of one of these — either the sender or
the receiver — reality does not exist. There is no
music on the radio, and the screen is blank. If we
adhere to this concept of reality as the product of
the interaction between sender and receiver, the
perception of a different reality under the influ-
ence of hallucinogens may be explained by the
fact that the brain, which is the site of conscious-
ness, undergoes dramatic biochemical changes.
The receiver is thus set for wavelengths other than
those associated with normal, everyday reality.
From this perspective, the subjective experience
of reality is infinite, depending on the capacity of
the receiver, which can be greatly changed
through biochemical modification of the brain
field.

In general, we experience life from a rather lim-
ited point of view. This is the so-called normal
state. However, through hallucinogens the per-
ception of reality can be strongly changed and ex-
panded. These different aspects or levels of one
and the same reality are not mutually exclusive.
They form an all-encompassing, timeless, trans-
cendental reality.

The possibility of changing the wavelength
setting on the “ego receiver,” and, with this, to
produce changes in the awareness of reality, con-
stitutes the real significance of hallucinogens. This
ability to create new and different images of the
world is why hallucinogenic plants were, and still
are, regarded as sacred.

What is the essential, characteristic difference
between everyday reality and the images seen
during hallucinogenic inebriation? In normal
states of consciousness— in everyday reality —
ego and outside world are separated; one stands
face to face with the outside world; it has become
an object. Under the influence of hallucinogens,
the borderline between the experiencing ego and
the outside world disappears or becomes blurred,

188

Below: Visionary experiences produced by hallucinogens are a source of in-
spiration for painters. These two watercolors by Christian Ratsch emerged
after taking LSD and show the mystical character of the experience.

Page 188: The first treatise on inebriants is apparently the doctoral thesis of
Alander, a student of Linnaeus, who is the father of modern botany. This
thesis, defended in 1762 at Uppsala, was a mixture of scientific and pseudo-
scientific information. An observer present at the thesis defense may have
doodled these profiles, possibly depicting the academic examiners.

depending on the degree of inebriation. A feed-
back mechanism is set up between receiver and
sender. Part of the ego reaches out to the external
world, into the objects around us; they begin to
come to life, acquiring a deeper and different
meaning. This may be a joyful experience or a

ecstasy known as the unio mystica or, in the ex-
perience of Eastern religious life, as samadhi or
satori. In both of these states, a reality is experi-
enced that is illuminated by that transcendental
reality in which creation and ego, sender and re-
ceiver, are One.

demonic one, involving the loss of the trusted
ego. The new ego feels linked in bliss with out-
side objects in a special way and also with other
human beings. The experience of deep communi-
cation with the outside world may even culmi-
nate in the sensation of being at one with the
whole of creation.

This state of cosmic consciousness that under
favorable circumstances may be attained with hal-
lucinogens is related to the spontaneous religious

The changes in consciousness and perception
that may be experimentally produced with hallu-
cinogens have found a number of different appli-
cations in medicine. The pure substances most
commonly used in this field are mescaline, psi-
locybine, and LSD. Recent research has been
concerned mainly with the most powerful halluci-
nogen known so far, LSD, a substance that is a
chemically modified form of the active principle
in Ololiuqui.

189

Below left: LSD is usually distributed on printed and perforated paper. The
designs often have mystical references and use icons of Eastern religions.

In psychoanalysis, breaking the habitual ex-
perience of the world can help patients caught
in an ego-centered problem cycle to escape from
their fixation and isolation. With the I-Thou
barrier relaxed or even removed under the influ-
ence of a hallucinogen, better contact may be
established with the psychiatrist, and the patient
may become more open to psychotherapeutic
suggestion.

Hallucinogenic stimulation also often causes
forgotten or repressed past experiences to be
clearly recalled. It can be of crucial importance in
psychotherapy to bring back to conscious aware-
ness events that led to a psychological distur-
bance. Numerous reports have been published on
how the influence of hallucinogens used during

successive occasions at specific intervals. The
patient’s experiences under the influence of the
hallucinogen are discussed in a group session that
follows and are expressed through painting,
drawing, and the like. The term psycholysis was
invented by Ronald A. Sandison, an English psy-
chotherapist of the Jungian school. The “-lysis”
component indicates the dissolving of psychologi
cal tensions and conflicts.

Below right and page 191: These drawings were done in 1972. The two on top
(p. 1 91) were done before and after the LSD session. The three drawings
below (pp. 190-191) were done before, during, and after the session with the
same hallucinogen.

psychoanalysis revived memories of past events,
even those from very early childhood. This is not
the usual form of remembering, but involves actu-
ally going through the experience again: it is not
reminiscence but reviviscence, as the French psy-
chiatrist Jean Delay put it.

The hallucinogen does not in itself effect a
cure but rather plays the role of a medicinal aid
to be used in the total context of psychoanalysis
or psychotherapy, to make these more effective
and to reduce the period of treatment required.
There are two different ways of using it for this
purpose.

One method, developed in European hospitals,
is known as psycholysis. It consists of giving med-
ium doses of the hallucinogen on a number of

190

The second method is the one generally pre-
ferred in the United States. After intensive psycho-
logical preparation appropriate to each indivi-
dual, the patient is given a single very high dose
of the hallucinogen. This “psychedelic therapy” is
intended to produce a mystic, religious state of
ecstasy that should provide a starting point for
restructuring the patient’s personality. The term
psychedelic means “mind manifesting.” It was
coined by the psychiatrist Humphrey Osmond.

The use of hallucinogens as an aid to psycho-
analysis and psychotherapy is based on effects

analysis and psychotherapy, are still the subject of
dispute in medical circles. However, this applies
also to other techniques, such as electroshock, in-
sulin treatment, and psychosurgery, all of which
carry far greater danger than the use of hallucino-
gens, which, in expert hands, may be regarded as
virtually without risk.

Some psychiatrists hold the view that the faster
retrieval of forgotten or repressed traumatic ex-
periences frequently seen with these drugs and
the shorter period of treatment are not advanta-
geous. They believe that this method does not al-
low sufficient time for the full psychotherapeutic
utilization and integration of the material made
conscious, and that the beneficial effects are of
shorter duration than if traumatic experiences are

that are the opposite of those psychotropic drugs
known as tranquilizers. These drugs tend rather to
suppress the patient’s problems and conflicts,
making them appear less serious and no longer so
important, whereas the hallucinogens bring con-
flicts to the surface and make them more intense,
so that they may be more clearly recognizable and
open to psychotherapy.

Hallucinogenic drugs, as an adjunct to psycho-

brought back to conscious awareness more gradu-
ally and dealt with in stages.

Psycholysis and psychedelic therapy both re^
quire very careful preparation of the patient be-
fore the hallucinogen is given. If there is to be a
really positive gam from the experience, patients
must not be frightened by the unusual effects
produced by the drug. Careful selection of pa-
tients to be treated is also important, for not

191

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Page 192: In the 1960s, many artists in the United States and Europe ex-
perimented with hallucinogens in order to enhance the creative process. The
painting on the left is an example of this genre.

every type of psychic disorder responds equally
well to this form of therapy To be successful,
therefore, hallucinogen-assisted psychoanalysis
or psychotherapy requires special knowledge
and experience.

One of the most important aspects of the clin-
ical training of a psychotherapist working with

hallucinogens is self-experimentation with these
substances. Through these experiences, therapists
can gain direct knowledge of the worlds that their
patients enter and, thereby, have much greater un-
derstanding of the dynamics of the unconscious.

Hallucinogens may also be used in experimen-
tal studies to determine the nature of mental dis-
orders. Certain abnormal mental states produced
by hallucinogens in normal subjects are, in some
respects, similar to the symptoms of schizophre-
nia and other mental diseases. At one time it was
even thought that hallucinogenic intoxication

Below: Only a few artists are capable of expressing the visionary realms while
directly under the influence of hallucinogens. The two paintings by Fred
Weidmann were executed while under the influence of Psilocybe
cyanescens. Both are acrylic on marbled paper.

Left: Slipping and Sliding 1 (There exists another painting from thesameday.)
Right: The Garden of Pan

could be considered a “model of psychosis,” but
major differences have in fact been found between
psychotic states and hallucinogenic inebriation.
However, hallucinogenic intoxication can serve
as a model for studying the biochemical and elec-
trophysiological changes that occur with abnor-
mal mental states.

One area where the medical use of hallucino-
gens, and particularly LSD, touches on serious
ethical questions is in the care of the dying. Doc-
tors in American hospitals observed that the very
severe pain suffered by cancer patients, which no
longer responded to conventional painkillers,
could be partly or completely relieved by LSD.
This action is probably not analgesic in the usual
sense. What is thought to happen is that the per-
ception of pain disappears; under the influence of
the drug, the patient’s mind becomes separated
from his body to such an extent that physical pain

193

Below: During visionary experiences, many people see spirals, whirlpools,
and milky ways. The artist Nana Nauwald depicted such an experience in her
painting The Middle Is Everywhere.

no longer reaches it. If the use of hallucinogens in
this type of case is to be effective, it is again abso-
lutely necessary to prepare the patient mentally
and to explain the kind of experience and the
changes that he may undergo. Great benefit
derives also from guiding the patient’s thoughts

Below left: The painting Spirit and Matter Are Indivisible documents a recur-
ring hallucinogen-influenced experience.

Below right: Many people recognize the Will to Live when they have tasted the
plants of the gods. Nana Nauwald expresses this artistically.

toward religious aspects, which can be done by a
clergyman or by a psychotherapist. There have
been numerous reports of how dying individuals,
free from pain in LSD ecstasy, have come to per-
ceive the meaning of life and death, and have died
in peace, reconciled to their fate and free from
fear.

The medical use of hallucinogenic drugs differs
from the shamanistic use of hallucinogenic sacred
plants by medicine men and healer-priests in that
the latter usually themselves eat the plant, or drink

a decoction made from it; whereas in conventional
medicine, the hallucinogenic substance is given
only to the patient. In both instances, however,
the same psychological effects are utilized, for
the same drug actions that serve as an aid to psy-
choanalysis and psychotherapy also give the sha-
man unusual powers of divination and healing.
They consist of the loosening or even dissolution
of the I-Thou barrier, with the result that objec-
tive everyday consciousness dissolves into the
mystic experience of One-ness.

195

EPILOGUE

One of the leading lights of the interdisciplinary
investigations of hallucinogens was Louis Lewin,
the famous Berlin toxicologist. More than a half a
century ago, he captured the all-pervading signi-
ficance of hallucinogens to the cultural evolution
of the human race when he wrote in his book
Phantastica:

“From the beginning of our knowledge of man,
we find him consuming substances of no nutritive
value but taken for the sole purpose of producing
for a certain time a feeling of contentment, ease,
and comfort . . .

“Their potential energy has covered the whole
earth and established communication between
various races, in spite of dividing mountains and
sundering seas. These substances have formed a
bond of union between men of opposite hemi-
spheres, the uncivilized and the civilized; they
have forced passages which, once open, proved of
use for other purposes: they produced in ancient
races characteristics which have endured to the
present day, evidencing the marvelous degree of
intercourse that existed between different people
just as certainly and as exactly as a chemist can
judge the relations of two substances by their
reactions. Hundreds or thousands of years were
necessary to establish contact between whole
nations by these means . . .

“The motives for the occasional or habitual use
of these drugs are of greater interest than collec-
tion of facts concerning them. Here all kinds of
human contrasts meet: barbarism and civilization,
with all their various degrees of material posses-
sions, social status, knowledge, belief, age and
gifts of body, mind, and soul.

“On this plane meet artisan and sybarite, ruler
and subject; the savage from some distant island
or from the Kalahari Desert associates with poet,
philosophers, scientists, misanthropes, and phi-
lanthropists; the man of peace rubs shoulders with
the man of war, the devotee with the atheist.

“The physical impulses which bring under their
spell such diverse classes of mankind must be ex-
traordinary and far-reaching. Many have ex-
pressed opinions about them, but have probed
and understood their intrinsic properties, and
fewer still perceived the inner-most significance
and the motives for the use of substances in which
such energies are stored.”

Above: In Huichol, the term nierika refers to a portway between so-called
ordinary and non-ordinary realities. It is a passageway and, at the same time,
a barrier between worlds. Nierika, a decorated ceremonial disk, is also said to
mean “mirror” as well as “face of the deity.” This nierika shows the four cardi-
nal directions and the sacred center. The coordinating axis is placed in a field
of fire.

Several early scientific investigators can be
credited with beginning the interdisciplinary re-
search on hallucinogenic plants and psychoactive
substances. In 1855, Ernst Freiherr von Bibra
published Die narkotischen Genussmittel und
der Mensch, in which he considered some seven-
teen psychoactive plants. He urged chemists to
study diligently an area so promising and so full
of enigmas. Mordecai Cooke, a British mycolo-
gist, published a number of specialized papers on
fungi. His only popular, nontechnical publica-
tion, The Seven Sisters of Sleep, was an interdisci-
plinary study of psychoactive plants, published
in 1860.

Half a century after von Bibra’s work and un-
doubtedly sparked by it, another outstanding
book appeared. Carl Hartwichs extensive Die
menschlichen Genussmittel, published in 1911,
considered at length and with an interdisciplinary

196

emphasis about thirty psychoactive plants, and he
mentioned a number of others in passing. Point-
ing out that von Bibra’s pioneering book was da-
ted, that chemical and botanical research on these
curiously active plants had scarcely begun in 1855,
he optimistically maintained that by 1911, such
studies were either well under way or had already
been completed.

Thirteen years later, in 1924, perhaps the most
influential figure in psychopharmacology, Louis
Lewin, published his Phantastica, a book of ex-
traordinary interdisciplinary depth. It presented
a total story of some twenty-eight plants and a
few synthetic compounds that are used around
the world for their stimulating or inebriating ef-
fects, emphasizing their importance to scientific
research, especially in the fields of botany, eth-
nobotany, chemistry, pharmacology, medicine,
psychology, and psychiatry, as well as to ethnol-
ogy, history, and sociology. Lewin wrote that
“the contents of this book will provide a start-
ing point from which original research in the
above-mentioned departments of science maybe
pursued.”

From the 1930s to today, interdisciplinary ac-
tivity in psychopharmacology, botany, and an-
thropology began uninterruptedly to increase.
Many amplifications and clarifications of older
knowledge have been made and new discoveries
in sundry fields have followed one another in
close succession. In spite of the pharmaceutical,
phytochemical, and ethnobotanical advances that
have been made in the past 150 years, there still
remains a tremendous amount of work to be done
on these “plants of the gods.”

ERNST FREIHERR VON BIBRA
1806-1878

CARL HARTWICH
1851-1917

MORDECAI COOKE
1825-1913

LOUIS LEWIN
1850-1929

197

PHOTO CREDITS

Arnau, F., Rauschgift, Lucerne 1967: 101 below right
A-Z Botanical Coll., London: 17 above left
Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City (Codex
Barberini Lat. 241 fol. 29r): 111 left
Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence: 159
above (Photo: Dr. G. B. Pineider)

Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze, Florence:
162 above (Photo: G. Sansoni)

Biedermann, H., Lexikon der Felsbildkunst, Graz
1976: 83 above

Bildarchiv Bucher, Lucerne: 17 below right
Biocca, E., Yanoama, Bari 1965 (Photo: Padre L.
Cocco): 178 middle, 178/179, 179 middle, right,
181 left

Black Star, New York: 96 middle, left and right (Photo
C. Henning)

Bouvier, N., Cologny-Geneve: 82
Brill, □., College Park, Georgia: 168 above left
Carroll, L., Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, New
York 1946: 101 below left

Coleman Collection, Uxbridge: 17 above, center left
Curtis Botanical Magazine, vol. Ill, third series, Lon-
don 1847: 147 below
Editions Delcourt, Paris: 89 above left
EMB Archives, Lucerne: 5. 13 above, centerright, 28/
29, 36 (9, 10), 38 (14,15), 40 (22, 25 below), 43
(35), 44 (38, 39), 46 (46) and below, 48 (52, 53)
and below, 49 (55, 56), 53 (70, 72) and below, 56
(84) and below, 58 (89, 90), 59 (93), 60 (96), 62, 88,
118, 119, 122 above, 132, 133 right, 145 above,
177, 187 above

Emboden, W., California State University, Northridge:
95 right

Erdoes, R., New York and Santa Fe: 152 right
ETH-Bibliothek, Zurich: 197 center left
Forman, W., Archive, London: 62 right
Frohlich, A., Lucerne: 186 above
Fuchs, L., New Kreuterbuch, Basel 1543: 31 left
Furst, P. T., New York State University, Albany, New
York: 172 below

Goodman, Mill Valley, California: 96 center left
Halifax Collection, Ojai, California: 150 below, 190/
191 middle, 191 above, 196
Harvard Botanical Museum, Cambridge, Mass.: 31
center left, 98 above, 152 left, 153 above right, 170
below, 185 above, 197 above
Hernandez de Alba, G., Nuestra Gente Namuy Mis-
ag, Bogota: 143 left
Hofmann, Dr. A., Burg i. L.: 23, 1 62 left
Holford, M., Loughton: 105 below
Holmstedt, B., Karolinska Institute, Stockholm: 197
below

Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation, Carnegie-
Mellon University, Pittsburgh: 188

Kaufmann, P. B., Department of Botany, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor: 99

Kobel, H., Sandoz Research Laboratories, Basel: 103
below right

Koch-Grunberg, T., Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern,
Berlin, 1910: 127 left

Kohler, Medizinal-Pflanzenatlas, vol. I, Gera-Unterm-
haus 1887: 21 below, 31 center left
Krippner, S., San Francisco: 192
Leuenberger, H., Yverdon: 1 1 1 right
Lyckner, K.-Ch., Hamburg: 1 1 0 above left
Moreau de Tours, J., Du Hachisch et de /' alimentation
Mentale, Paris 1 845: 1 00 below
Museo del Oro, Bogota: 64

Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Gift of Mrs. W. Scott
Fritz: 108 left

Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,
New York: 1 52 middle

Museum Rietberg, Zurich: 2 (Photo: Kammerer /
Wolfsberger), 10/11 Sammlung von der Heydt
(Photo: Wettstein & Kauf)

Myerhoff, B., Los Angeles: 148, 149 above left, 151
below

Nauwald, N., Siidergellersen: 194, 195
Negrin, J., Mexico: 63 (Photo: L. P. Baker))

New Yorker, New York: 100 top
Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna (Codex
Vindobonensis S. N. 2644 — Tacuinum Sanitatis in
Medicina — Folio 40): 87 below
Ott, J„ Xalapa: 56 (82)

Parker, A.: Yale University, New Haven: 97 below left
Pelt, J. M., Drogues et plantes magiques, Paris 1971:
151 above left

Perret, J., Lucerne: 184-187 (models by Dr. A. Hof-
mann)

Photoarchiv Emil Schulthess Erben, Zurich: 24
Radio Times Hulton Picture Library, London: 4
Ratsch, C., Hamburg: 7, 8, 13 center, right, 17 below,
center left, 1 8, 1 9, 21 above, 22, 24/25, 27, 30, 34,
35, 36, 37 (8), 38 (16, 17), 39, 40, (23, 24), 42, 43
(34, 36, 37), 44 (40, 41), 45, 46 (45, 47, 48), 47, 48
(53), 49 (57), 50, 51 , 52, 53, (69, 71), 54, 55 (77, 78,
80), 56 (81, 83), 57, 58 (91), 59 (92, 94), 60 (95,
97), 83 below, 84 above, center left, below, 85
above right, below, 86, 97 above left, above right,
89 below, 90 below, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95 above, 96
above, below, 97, above left, above right, 101
above, 102, 103 above right, below right, 104, 105
right, 106, 107 above, below left, below right, 108
above right, below, 109, 110 below left, right, 112,
113 above below left, 114 above, 115 above, 117

left, above left, 120, 121, 122 below, 123, 124,
125, 128, 129, 130, 131, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138^
139, 140, 141, 142 right, 144, 145 below, 146, 147
above, 150 above, 151 above right, 152 above, 153
above left, 154 above left, 155 below, 156 above,
157 above, 158, 159 below, 164, 165, 166, 167,
168 above right, middle, below, 169, 170 above left,
below, 172 above, 173, 175 above, 176 left, 181
right, 182, 189, 190 left

Rauh, Prof., Dr. W., Institut fur Systematische Bota-
nik und Pflanzengeographie der Universitat Hei-
delberg: 16 above right, middle, below, 17 mid-
dle, 60

Roger Viollet, Paris: 1 1 6 right
Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew. 117 below right, 126
left, 197 center right

Sahagun, B. de, Historia General de las Cosas de
Nueva Espana, Mexico 1829: 107 below middle
Salzman, E.: Denver, Colorado: 85 above left
Samorini, G.: Dozza: 112 right, 113 below right, 114.

below, 115 below
Scala, Florence: 105 left

Schaefer, S. B.: McAllen, Texas: 6, 149 above right,
middle, 154 above right, below, 155 above
Schmid, X.: Wetzikon: 55 (79)

Schultes, R. E., Harvard Botanical Museum, Cam-
bridge, Mass.: 98 below, 1 17 above right, 126 mid-
dle, right, 127 right, 133 left, 142, 178
Schuster, M., Basel: 118 above left, 119 above
middle

Science Photo Library, London (Long Ashton Re-
search Station, University of Bristol): 31 right
Sharma, G., University of Tennessee, Martin: 98 cen-
ter right

Sinsemilla: Marijuana Flowers © Copyright 1976, Ri-
chardson, Woods and Bogart. Permission granted
by: And/Or Press, Inc., PO Box 2246, Berkeley, CA
94702: 97 below right

Smith, E. W., Cambridge, Mass.: 156/157 below, 171
above right, 176 right
Starnets, P. Olympia: 158 right
Tobler, R., Lucerne: 16 above left, 81
Topham, J., Picture Library, Edenbridge: 17 above
right, 90 above

Valentini, M. B., Viridarium reformatum, seu regnum
vegetabile, Frankfurt a. Main 1719: 80
Wasson, R. G., Harvard Botanical Museum, Cam-
bridge, Mass.: 14, 15 (Photo A. B. Richardson),
174 below, 175 below (Photo: C. Bartolo)
Weidmann, F., Munich: 193

Zentralbibliothek Zurich (Ms. F23, p. 399): 89 above
right

Zerries, O., Munich: 118 below right, 118/119, 119
above right

198

AC KNOWLED GMENTS

Should this book succeed in giving its readers a better
understanding of the role of hallucinogenic plants in
the cultural development of man through the centu-
ries, we must thank the patience and friendliness of
shamans and other native peoples with whom we
have had the happy opportunity of working.

The debt that we owe for the faithful cooperation
and encouragement of our many professional collea-
gues over the years can be neither easily nor ade-
quately put into words, but nonetheless it is deeply
appreciated.

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Index

(prepared by
Christian Ratsch)

Italics of numbers refer to cap-
tions.

1 ,2-dimethyl-6-methoxytetra-
hydro-p-carboline 117, 179

2- methyl-6-methoxytetrahy-
dro-fl-carboline 117, 179

3,4-dimethoxyphenylethyla-
mine 59

3- hydroxy-4-methoxyphe-
nethylamine 42

3- methoxy-tyramine 39, 59, 77

4- hydroxy-3-methoxypheny-
lethylamine 51, 67, 69

4- tetrahydroisoquinoline alka-
loids 51

5- hydroxydimethyltryptamine
117

5-hydroxy-tryptophane 52
5-hydroxycarnegine 39, 77
5-MeO-DMT 22, 35, 50, 54,

60, 69, 77, 137, 138, 138
5-MeO-MMT 120
5-methoxy(-A/,A/)-dimethyl-
tryptamine 69, 179

5- OH-DMT-A/-oxide 120

6- methoxy-W,A/-dimethyltryp-
tamine 179

a-asarone 34, 77
A-mu-kia 1 73

Aborigines 42, 73, 75, 182,

183, 183
Acacia 34, 72
Acacia resin 73, 75
Acacias 72, 73, 75
Acacia aneura 183
Acacia coriacea 183
Acacia kempeana 1 83
Acacia lingulata 1 83
Acacia maidenii 34, 72, 73,

138, 138

Acacia phlebophylla 34, 67,

72, 73, 138

Acacia pruinocarpa 1 83
Acacia salicina 1 83
Acacia simplicifolia 34, 72, 73,
138

Accultaration 65
Achuma 166, 168
Acorus 34

Acorus calamus 16, 34, 76
Afghanistan 41 , 68, 73, 88, 99
Aflotoxins 19

Africa 26, 34, 39, 40, 41, 46,

49, 50, 52, 60, 64, 73, 76,

78, 88, 94, 96, 97, 98, 99,

109, 110, 111, 115
Agara 26, 43, 66, 69
Agave 1 09
Age of Herbals 16
Agriculture 20
Aguacolla 27,30,76, 168
Aguardiente 143
Ahijado 39
Ahnishinaubeg 85
Ahriman 102
Ai euro 134
Aji'134
Ajuca 70, 71
Ajuwri-kahi-ma 126
Alan 114
Alander 189
Albertus the Great 87
Albornoz, Cristobal de 120
Alcohol 10, 23, 82, 160
Alcoholic drinks 69
Alcornea castanaefolia 1 34
Aicornea floribunda 98, 1 14
Algae 17, 18, 19
Algonquin 78, 79, 110
Alice in Wonderland 101

Alkaline plant ash(es) 67, 75,
182, 183

Alkaloid(s) 23, 34, 38, 39, 40,
42, 43, 47, 50, 52, 53, 54,
56, 59, 67, 69, 71, 73, 75,
77, 79, 105, 120, 184
Allergies 46
Alpen nomads 72
Altai 82

Alternanthera lehmanii 1 24
Ama 178
Amacisa 134
Amanita 34, 64, 82-85
Amanita muscaria 17,29,34,
70, 81 , 82-85, 82
Amaringo, Pablo 12
Amaryllis family 26
Amasita 69, 178
Amazon 24, 30, 36, 49, 59, 60,
81, 117, 124-135, 139, 141,
162, 176, 177, 178
Amazon Valley 66
Amazonia 12, 37, 55, 58, 68,
119, 139

Amazonian Brazil 72, 74, 177
Amazonian folk medicine 69
Amazonian Peru 79
America(s) 20, 34, 74, 76, 84,
110, 144, 162
American basil 124
American Southwest 78, 107
Amitabha Buddha 108
Amphibians 90
Amrita 92
Amsterdam 139
Amulets 68, 90
Anabasine 75, 179, 183
Anabatin 183

Anadenanthera 34, 8 1 , lie-
119, 117 179

Anadenanthera colubrina 29,
34, 66, 1 20, 122, 123
Anadenanthera colubrina var.

Cebil 66, 120-123, 120
Anadenanthera peregrina 29,
35,66,116-119, 116-118,
138

Anadenanthera peregrina var.

falcata 66
Anahuasca 137
Analgesics 13
Anandatandava 10
Anatalline 183

Ancestor-communication ritual
112-115, 129
Ancestors67, 112-115
Andean Indians 78
Andes 30, 33, 34, 40, 42, 45,

53, 59, 66, 74, 76, 81, 116,
117, 140, 141, 142, 143,

143, 168

Andromedotoxin 53
Aneglakya 106
Anesthetic 107
Angel’s trumpet(s) 66, 107,

134, 140-143
Angelitos 84
Angiosperms 16, 17 , 18
Angler’s Weed 96
Anglo-Saxon period 95
Angro Maynes 102
Animal Kingdom 14, 117
Antiaris toxicaria 46
Antibiotics 19

Antiquity 26, 36, 44, 48, 66, 76
Antilles 116
Anxiety 73
Apasmarapurusa 10
Aperitif 79

Aphrodisiac 46, 57, 60, 69, 71 ,
73,75,77, 78,79,109,170
Aphrodite 90
Apollo 44, 90
Apollo’s plant 44
Apollo’s temple 91
Apomorphine 50, 67
Aposcopolamine 141
Apples of Love 90
Aquatic plants 65

Arabian physician 68
Arabian territory 98
Arabs 74
Arapaho 74

Arbol de Campanilla 74
Arbol de los Brujos 27, 30, 72
Archichlamydeae 17
Argemone mexicana 98
Argentina 30, 43, 66, 67, 81 ,
120, 122, 167
Argyreia 35

Argyreia nervosa 35, 78, 103
Ariocarpus 35, 42, 71
Ariocarpus fissuratus 35, 70,
147

Ariocarpus retusus 35, 70, 147
Arizonine 39, 77
Aromo 122
Arrow poisons 1 0
Artaud, Antonin 8, 147
Artemisia ludoviciana 153
Artemisia mexicana 98
Arum family 26
Arundo donax 138
Arutam wakani 143
Aryans 70, 82
Asarones 34

Asia 26, 34, 36, 39, 40, 4 1 , 44,
49, 50, 52, 53, 64, 82, 82,

84, 88, 95, 108
Asia Minor 72, 76, 97, 98
Assassin 72

Assyrians 94, 98, 99, 102
Astoria 157

Astrophyton asterias 147
Atacama 120, 123
Atangatree 112
Athabaskan peoples 70
Atropa 36, 86-91
Atropa belladonna 17, 29, 36,
68, 69, 86-91, 86, 90
Atropa belladonna vat. lutea
36, 86

Atropa caucasia 36
Atropa komarovii 36
Atropine 36, 37, 39, 41 , 46, 48,
73, 86,87, 141
Atropos 88

Auditory hallucinations 77, 79
Australia 26, 34, 42, 43, 72, 74,
81, 138, 183
Avicenna 68, 107
Axocatzin 57, 72
Ayahuasca 12, 19, 30, 36, 55,

59, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67, 69,

81, 124-135, 124-137, 139,
141, 143

Ayahuasca additive(s) 37, 58,
124, 134, 138

Ayahuasca analogs 34, 54, 55,
69,73,77, 131, 137-139
Ayahuasca Churches 139
Ayahuasca patterns 129, 130,
131

Ayahuasca vine 36, 125
Ayahuasca vision(s) 133, 137
Ayahuasquero 133
Ayahuma 134
Ayan-beyem 1 1 5
Ayurvedic medicine 68, 78, 79
Aztec Codex 63
Aztec Dream Grass 78
Aztec(s) 26, 27, 41 , 43, 45, 56,

60, 62, 63, 66, 70, 72, 74,
78,79,81, 109, 146, 156,

159, 164, 165, 170, 172,

173, 174

Aztec Sage 1 64
Aztekium riterii 147
(3-asarone 77

(i-carboline alkaloids 52, 59,

67, 69,77, 127
(5-carbolines 67, 81, 127, 131
|3-phenethylamine 40, 57
Bacchanals 89
Bactris species 179
BadianusManuscipt 107
Badoh 74

Badoh Negro 45, 66, 175

Baeocystine 52, 55, 73
Bakana 40, 56, 66
Bakanawa 66
Balche’ 34
Bali 51, 68, 69
Banisterine 127
Banisteriopsis (spp.) 36, 67, 69,
81,124-135,137, 137 , 143
Banisteriopsis caapi 29, 36, 66,
124,125,126,129,137,139
Banisteriopsis inebrians 36,

66, 124, 129

Banisteriopsis muricata 131
Banisteriopsis quitensis 124
Banisteriopsis rusbyana 66, 67
Banzie 1 1 3

Barasana 132, 177, 177
Batsikawa 134
Baudelaire, Charles 101 , 101
Bauhin 104
Bedouins 88

Beer 71, 74, 75, 109, 122, 130,
141

Belgian 114
Belgium 104

Belladonna 26, 68, 88, 107
Benares 97
Beni-Tengu-Dake 85
Beri-berl 95
Bering Strait 84
Bern 96
Betel 73

Betel chew mixture 69
Beyama 1 1 4
Bhang 72, 73, 97
Bharaorakasha 95
Biak-Biak 72
Biangan 141
Bible 97, 161

Bibra, Ernst Freiherr von 196,
197, 197
Big Raven 82

Bindweed(s) 103, 135, 171
Biocca, Ettore 176
Bipyridyl 183
Black Henbane 44
Blake, William 88
Blood-red Angel’s Trumpet 33,
37, 140-143, 140
Blue Meanies51, 146-163
Blue Water Lily 66
Bogota 117
Boletus 36, 75
Boletus kumeus 74
Boletus manicus 36, 74
Boletus nlrgoviolaceus 74
Boletus reayi 36, 74
Bolivia 18, 76, 166, 168
Bonplant, Aime 116, 140
Bora 176, 178, 179, 180
Borrachero 27, 66, 68, 74, 76,
124, 143, 143
Botswana 26, 72
Bovista 48

Brazil 66, 68,70,72,73,77,

117, 118, 119, 139, 177.

178, 178

British Guyana 119
Brugmansia (spp.) 29, 37, 64,
67,73,77,81, 124, 140-143
Brugmansia arborea 66, 1 40,

141

Brugmansia aurea 37, 66,
140-143

Brugmansia x Insignis 66, 141
Brugmansia sanguinea 33, 37,
66, 140-143

Brugmansia suaveolens 66,

124, 141

Brugmansia versicolor 66, 141
Brugmansia vulcanicola 66,

140, 143

Brunfelsia 30, 37, 68, 69, 124
Brunfelsia chiricaspi 37, 68,

124

Brunfelsia grandiflora 37, 68,

124

Brunfelsia grandiflora ssp.
schultesii68, 135

Bryophyta 16
Buddha 97, 107, 108
Buddhism 97, 98
Bufo alvarius 22
Bufotenine 69, 120, 120
Bush people 73
Bushmen 26, 72, 99
Buyes 141

Bwiti cult 26, 71, 112-115,
112-115

Caapi 30, 66, 62, 67, 124, 126
Caapi-Pinima 59, 66
Cabalonga 134
Cabalonga blanca 134
Cacalia 38

Cacalia cordifolia 38, 74
Cacao tree 1 77
Cachirf 131

Cactus 67, 71, 75, 124
Caesalpinia 38
Caesalpinia decapetala 78
Caesalpinia sepiaria 38, 78
Cahua 66
Caji 132
Calamus 76

Calathea veltchiana 1 24
Calea 38

Calea zacatechichi 38, 78, 98
California 72
Calima region 162
Caltrop 137
Cameroon 1 14
Campa 127
Campanilla 26
Canada 26, 74, 76, 85, 151
Canary Islands 70
Canavalia maritima 98
Cannabidiolic acids 73
Cannabinol(s) 93
Cannabinotic compounds 73
Cannabis 12, 38, 72, 73, 81,

98, 92-101, 92-101, 107,
108, 184, 185
Cannabis cakes 72
Cannabis cigarettes 69
Cannabis indica 72, 92, 92-
101, 185

Cannabis indica x sativa 92
Cannabis ruderalis 93
Cannabis sativa 17, 29, 38, 72
114, 185

Cannabis substitute 77
Caribbean Islands 26
Carludovica 179, 180
Carnegia 39, 77
Carnegia gigantea 76
Carnegine 77
Carroll, Lewis 101
Cassias pp. 183
Cat’s claw 134, 135
Catahua 134
Catharanthus roseus 98
Catholic Church 159
Catholicism 115
Catnip 98
Cawe 51 , 66
Caza 89

Cebil 30, 34, 66, 120-123, 120
Ceboletta 66
Cecropia mexicana 98
Ceiba pentandra 135
Ceremonial intoxication 69
Cestrum 39

Cestrum iaevigatum 68, 98
Cestrum parqui 39, 68, 98
Cha-pe-na 179
Chancarro 98

Chacruna55, 66, 124-135 , 134

Chacruna Bush 66, 139

Chacs 84

Chalice Vine 57

Chamico 109

Channa 70

Chanoclavin-I 79

Charas 26, 72, 73

Charms 68

Chatin area 174

Chatino 158

Chautle 70

204

Chavin de Huantar 122, 166
Chiapas 77, 159, 162
Chibcha 66, 67, 1 1 6
Chicha 67, 140, 141
Chichibe 72
Chichimeca 144, 145
Chiclayo 166
Chihuahua 70, 74, 144
Childbirth 96, 1 04
Chile 66,68,69,72, 76,78,95,
123, 141
Chilicote 68
Chimu culture 168
China 66, 70, 71 , 76, 77, 78,

94, 107, 108

Chinantec 66, 75, 78, 158,

173, 174

Chindoy, Salvador 142
Chinese medicine 76, 77
Chinese shamanism 94
Chinese writings 68, 72, 79,

94, 107

Chiric-Sanango 68
Chiricaspi 30, 68, 69, 134, 135
Choco 141
Chonta Palm 1 68
Chontal Indians 78, 79
Chorisia insignis 135
Chou dynasty 94
Christian holy spirits 139
Christianity 70, 79, 1 1 5, 1 22,
147

Chuchu-caspi 134
Cigars 1 65

Cigarette 71 , 73, 79, 93
Cimora 168

Claviceps39, 102-105, 102-
105

Claviceps paspali 1 02
Claviceps purpurea 29, 39, 68,
102-105, 102-105
Clinton, Bill 155
Clusiaceae 124
Coatl-xoxo uhqui 170
Coaxihuitl 170
Coca 13, 29, 64, 117
Cocaine 12, 113
Codeine 12

Codex BerberiniLatina241, 107

Codex Florentino 159

Cohoba 26, 116

Cold tree 68, 69

Coleus 39, 69

Coleus blumei 39, 68, 165

Coleus pumilus 39, 68, 164 , 1 65

Colima 1 62

Collenia 18, 18

Colombia 30, 65, 67, 68, 69,

74, 76, 116, 116, 117, 118,
119, 126, 133, 140, 140,

141, 142, 162, 176, 177, 178
Colombian Choco 73
Colombian Indians 68
Colombian Vaupes 69, 1 24
Colorado River Toad 22
Colorines 68, 74
Comanche 151, 152
Common Reed 54, 68
Common Wireweed 98
Conduro 168
Congo 26,70,81, 97, 99
Conibo-Shipibo 126, 129, 130
Conocybe 40, 156—163
Conocybe siligineoides 40, 78
Convolvulus tricolor 171
Cooke, Mordecai 196, 197
Copal 150, 164
Copelandia 68

Copelandia cyanescens 68, 69
Cora Indians 97, 145, 146,

147, 149
Coral Bean 74
Coral Tree 43
Coriaria 40

Coriaria thymifolia 40, 76
Coryphanta 40, 67
Coryphanta compacta 40, 66
Coryphanta palmerii 40
Coryphanta spp. 66

Costa Rica 78, 1 18. 1 62
Cotinin 183
Coumarines 71 , 77
Cowhage 68
Cree Indians 76
Crow Dog, Henry 152
Crusades 103
Cryogenine 77
Cuba 40, 60, 159, 175
Culebra borrachero 1 42
Cumala (Tree) 60, 134
Cuna 97

Curanderismo 166
Curandero 109, 168
Curare 69, 126
Curare-like activity 75
Cuscohygrine 73
Cuzco 129, 169
Cyanogenesis 73
Cymbopogon 40
Cymbopoaon densiflorus 40,
70, 98 "

Cyperus 1 24
Cytisine 69, 71 , 75
Cytisus 41,71
Cytisus canariensis 41 , 70
^1-3,4-trans-tetrahydrocanna-
binol 73, 98
D-nbr-nicotine 1 83
Dacha 72
Daggha 26
Dagga 72, 98
Dama da Noite 68
Damiana 98
Dapa 124
Dark Ages 91
Dark-rimmed Mottlegill 52,
156-163

Datura 10, 26, 27, 41, 64, 68,
73, 79, 81, 93, 97, 106-111,
140, 141, 147, 172
Datura ceratocaula 1 1 1
Datura discolor78
Datura fastuosa 110
Datura ferox 68, (109)

Datura innoxia 18, 41 , 73, 78,
79, 106-111
Datura kymatocarpa 78
Datura mete 1 13, 41, 68, 106-
111, 106

Datura meteloides 78
Datura pruinosa 78
Datura reburra 78
Datura spp. 29, 1 06-1 1 1
Datura stramonium 31,41,78,
106-111

Datura stramonium var. ferox
109

Datura stramonium var. tatula
106

Datura wrightii 78
Dauphinb 103
De Candolle, A. P. 105
Dead Sea 90

Deadly Nightshade 16, 17, 36,
68, 81, 86-91
Death 75

Deer 63, 144-155
Delaware 154
Delay, Jean 1 90
Delhi 85
Delirants 12
Delirium 73, 75, 86, 103
Delphi 70, 86, 91
Deltgen, Florian 132
Delusionogens 12
Demeter 81, 104
Depression 73
Desfontania 42
Desfontainia spinosa 27, 42,
76,77

Desgranges of Lyons 104
Desmanthus illinoensis 138
Desmodium 137, 138
Desmodium pulchellum 1 38
Desmodium spp. 138
Devil’s Herb 88
Dhatura 107
Di-shi-tjo-le-rra-ja 78

Diagnosis 69, 75, 77, 177
Diarrhea 73, 79
Dicotyledoneae 17
Dictyloma incanescens 138,

138

Dictyonema 1 9
Dietnes 142
Digitalis 10
Dihydroharmine 127
Dimethyltryptamine 69, 77,

117, 179
Dionysus 88

Dioscorides 1 6 , 87, 96, 107, 171
Diplopterys cabrerana 66, 67,
124, 126, 129, 138
Diterpenes 77
Divination 75, 77, 109, 124,

142, 164, 171, 175, 177
Divinatory plant 69
Diviner’s sage 27, 56, 1 64-1 65
Divinorin A, B 1 65
DMT 67, 69, 72, 73, 77, 117,
120, 127, 137, 137, 138, 138
DMT-W-oxide 120
DOB 14
Dobe 72
Dodart 1 04
Dog Grass 38
Dogbane family 26
Dogrib Athabascan peoples 85
Dore, Gustave 100
Dryopteris filix-mas 16
Duboisia 42, 182-183
Duboisia hopwoodii 42, 74,
182-183, 183
Duboisia myoporoides 1 83
Duboisia spp. 29
Dog Grass 98
Dragon doll 91
Dreamtime 1 82-1 83
Ducke 176
Dutch 70, 102
Dutra 68
Dwale 88
Dwaleberry 88
Eagle 63, 110
Earth Goddess 6, 63
Earth Mother 133, 146, 154
East Indies 69, 109
Eastern Europe 74
Eastern Hemisphere 28, 30
Ebena 177
Ebers Papyrus 86
Eboka 112
Echinocereus 42
Echinocereus salmdyckianus
42, 74

Echinocereus triglochidiatus
42, 74, 75

Echinopsis pachanoi 76
Ecuador 27, 30, 68, 69, 76, 77,
126

Ecuadorian Andes 66, 76
Egypt 54, 74, 88, 103
Egyptian culture 66, 86
Egyptian Henbane 88
Egyptian sites 72
Eidetics 1 2
El Ahijado 68, 1 65
El Macho 68, 164
El Nene 68, 165
El Nino 159

Elaeophorbia drupifera 115
Eleusis 102, 104
Eleusinian mysteries 68, 81 , 102
Elizabetha princeps 69, 178,
181

Enema 122

England 74, 95, 96, 104

Entheogens 12

Epena 68,69, 73, 176-181

Ephedra 84

Ephedra gerardiana 84

Ephedrine 19, 73

Epilepsy 103

Epilobium angustifolium 71
Epinephrine 145
Epiphyllum 1 24
Epithelantha 42

Epithelantha micromeris 42, 70
Ereriba 26, 44, 68
Ergine (LSA) 79, 103, 171
Ergoline alkaloids 69, 171
Ergonovine 79, 105
Ergot 26, 39, 68, 69, 102-105,
171

Ergot alkaloids 69, 103
Ergotamine 105
Ergotine 172
Ergotism 68, 103
Ergotoxine 103
Eroga 114

Ervatamia pandacaqui 76
Erythran type alkaloids 69
Erythrina 42, 69
Erythrina americana 42, 68
Erythrina coralloides 68
Erythrina flabelliformis 42, 68
Esakuna70

Eschweilera itayensis 1 71
Escobilla 98

Essential oil(s) 19, 34, 40, 46,
47, 57, 58, 71 , 75, 77
Eucalyptus microtheca 1 83
Eucalyptus spp. 183
Eugenol 75
Eugster 83
Euphoria 71, 101
Euphorics 13

Europe 13, 13, 26, 64, 68, 69,
72,74, 81, 88, 139, 158, 193
European folklore 73
European peoples 68
Everlasting 98
Fabaceae 138
False peyote 35, 70, 74, 78
Fang 1 12

Fang-K’uei 53, 70, 71
Farmer’s tobacco 134
Febrifuge 79
Fermented drink 67
Fern 16

Fetish plants 114
Fig family 93

Finno-Ugrian peoples 70, 82
Fish 14
Flag Root 76
Flavonglycosides 77
Floripondio 27, 66
Fly Agaric 16, 17, 26, 34, 62,
70, 81

Flying Saucers 170
Folk medicine 71 , 73, 76, 77,
79

France 1 03
French 102, 114
French Academy 104
Frijoles 74
Frijolillo 27
Frogs 14, 90
Fuchs, Leonard 31
Fungi 18, 65, 65, 71, 156, 196
Furocoumarines 71
Gabon 26,70, 81,112-115
Galanga 46, 70
Galbulimima 43
Galbulimima belgraveana 43,
66, 69

Galen 72, 95, 96
Galileo 90
Gallows man 91
Ganja 26, 72, 73, 97
Ganoderma lucidum 17
Garden of Eden 91
Gaston 1 03
Genista 27, 41 , 70
GenuBmittel 10
Gerard 91, 109
German(s) 102, 114
Germany 95, 139, 143
Ghangi 97
Gi'-i-Sa-Wa 70
Gi'-i-Wa 27, 70
Giganton 76, 168
Ginger 71
Ginger family 26
Ginseng 91, 94
God-narcotic 73

Golden Angel’s Trumpet 37,
140-143
Goodenia 183
Gramine 69, 77
Gramineae 138
Grasses 65

Greece 13, 26, 68, 70, 74, 81
86, 97, 102

Greek physician 72, 95
Grevillea striata 1 83
Guaianas 78
Guahibo 117, 119
Guambiano 140, 143
Guarana 29

Guatemala 62, 81 , 84, 1 61 , 1 62

Guatillo 1 34

Guayusa 29, 134

Guerrero 73

Gulf Coast of Mexico 72

Gumilla 118

Gums 183

Gustavia poeppigiana 1 79
Guttiferae 124
Guyana 116
Gymnospermae 17 , 181
Hades 105
Haiti 118

Hallucinations 12, 69, 71 , 73,
75,86,88, 103, 112, 141
Hallucinogen(s) 10-14, 28, 62,
64, 67, 69, 70, 71, 73, 74,

75.76.77, 78,79,94,102,
107, 140, 141, 142, 142,

147, 176, 196

Hallucinogen-assisted psy-
choanalysis 193
Hallucinogenic dreams 69
Hallucinogenic drugs 191, 195
Hallucinogenic effects 73, 75,
77,78

Hallucinogenic intoxication 67,

71.75.77, 79, 193
Hallucinogenic mushrooms 69
Hallucinogenic smoke 72
Hardwicke 108

Harmal 77
Harmalol 127

Harmaline 77, 127, 129, 137

Harmane 127

Harmine 77, 127, 129, 137

Harrison Narcotic Act 12

Hartwich, Carl 196, 197

Hashish 5, 72, 74, 92-101

Hashish-snuffing cults 99

Hashishins 72

Hawaiian Wood Rose 35, 78

Hawk 110

Hawkweed 98

Hayo 117

Heath family 27

Hecate 88

Heimia 43

Heimia salicifolia 43, 76, 77
Heimia species 76
Hekula 116-119, 118, 179
Helichrysum 43
Helichrysum foetidum 43, 76,
98

Helichrysum stenopterum 76,
98

Helicostylis 44
Helicostylis pedunculata 44,
78

Helicostylis tomentosa 44, 78
Hemp 12, 16, 17, 26, 38, 72,
92-101, 92-1 01, 184
Henbane 13, 26, 70, 81 , 86-
91, 86, 107
Henry VIII 95

Herb of the Shepherdess 70
Herbs 65, 75

Hernandez, Dr. Francisco 72,
109, 146, 157, 170
Herodotus 94
Heroin 12, 113
Heuresis 87
Hexing Herbs 86-91
Hidalgo 99

Hieracium pilosella 98

205

Hierba de la Pastora 27, 70.
164-165

Hierba de la Virgen 70
Hierba Loca27, 53, 76
Hierba Marfa 175
Highland Maya 62
Hikuli 66, 70, 74, 151
Hikuli Mulato 42, 70, 71
Hikuli Rosapara 70, 78
Hikuli Suname 70
Hikuri 74, 78, 148, 150
Hikuri Orchid 50
Himalayas 30, 98, 97, 106
Hindu 13, 93, 97
Hiporuru 134
Hippomanes 109
Hispaniola 116
Hoa-Glio 95
Hoasca 139
Hotter 13

Hofmann, Albert 13, 22, 162,
187

Hoja de la pastora 164
Holy Fire 103

Homalomena lauterbachii 44
Homalomena sp. 44, 67, 68
Homer 86

Hongo de San Isidro 78, 156
Hoop-petticoat 51, 156-163
Hops 71, 93

Hottentots 26, 70, 96, 99
Huaca 141
Huacacachu 27, 66
Huacachaca 141
Huachuma 168, 168
Huanto 27, 66
Huedhued 76
Hueipatl 72
Hueyytzontecon 174
Huichol 6, 8, 62, 63, 70, 71 , 72,
73,74,78, 144, 145, 146,
147, 148, 148, 149, 150,

150, 151, 151, 154, 162, 196
Huilca 66,74, 122
Humbold, Baron Alexander
von 116, 118, 119, 140
Hummingbird 166
Humulus 93
Hungarian stamp 175
Huskanawing ceremony 1 1 0
Hyoscyamine 69, 71, 73, 75,
79, 86

Hyoscyamus 44, 86-91
Hyoscyamus albus 13, 44, 70,
86-91

Hyoscyamus niger44, 70, 86-
91 , 86

Hyoscyamus spp. 29, 86-91
Hypnotics 13

Iboga 58, 64, 70,71,81, 112r-
115, 112-115
Iboga cult 112
Ibogaine 71, 79, 113
Ibogaine-like alkaloids 77
Ibotenic acid 71 , 83
Ice Plant family 26
Ilex drinks 64
Incense 150

India 26, 62, 66, 68, 69, 70, 72,
82, 88, 92, 95, 97, 97, 107,
108, 108, 109
Indian Henbane 88
Indian peoples 69
Indian writings 74, 98
Indians 66, 67, 69, 72, 73, 74, 79
Indochina 108
Indole alkaloids 71 , 77, 79
103, 113

Indolic alkaloids 79
Indonesia 26
Indra 82, 83, 92
Indus Valley 82
Inebriation 88
Ingano Indians 141
Initiation ritual 67, 71, 79, 81,
110 , 110

Insanity 73, 77, 86, 168
Inspiration 100
Intoxicant 73, 74, 76, 79

Intoxicating 31
Intoxicating drink 77
Intoxication 10, 67, 69, 71 , 72,
75, 77, 79, 108, 112, 145,
172, 174
Intoxicator 68
lochroma 45

lochroma fuchsioides 45, 74
Iowa tribes 74

Ipomoea45, 170-175, 170-175
Ipomoea carnea 1 34, 135, 172
Ipomoea rubrocaerulea 45
Ipomoea violacea 29, 45, 66,
103, 170-175, 170-175
Ireland 104
Iresine 124, 168
Iryanthera macrophylla 1 78
Iso-lysergic acid amide (iso-
LSD) 79, 186, 187
Isoharmine 127
Isoleosibirine 77
Isotoma longiflora 1 68
Islam 70, 98, 115
Jaguar(s) 119, 126, 130, 142
Jalisco 162
Jambur 68
Japan 83, 85
Jesuit(s) 145, 162
Jesus 154

Jibaro 64, 69, 141, 142, 143
Jimsonweed 78
Jopa 117

Josephus Flavius 90
Jouzmathal 107
Juliana Codex 87
Jungian school 190
Jurema 70
Jurema Tree 49
Juremahuasca 139
Justicia 45, 69, 72, 73, 181
Justicia pectoralis var. steno-
• phylla 45, 72, 178, 181
Kabuyare 177
Kaemferia 46

Kaempferia galanga 46, 70

Kaffirs 99

Kahi 124, 126

Kakulja-ikox 84

Kalahari desert 196

Kalamota 70

Kalinchok 30

Kamsa 74, 77, 141, 142

Kamtchatka 82, 85

Kana 134

Kandahar 99

Kanna 26, 70, 71

Kapok tree 134, 135

Karauetare 177

Karime 177

Karitiana Indians 72

Karuka madness 77

Kasai 99

Kashmir 97

Kathmandu 93, 158

Kauyumari 63, 148

Kava-kava 13, 26, 64

Kechwa 62

Khursu 98

Kickapoo 153

Kieli 72, 73

Kielitsa 73

Kieri 72

Kif 72, 98

Kiowa 151, 152, 153
Kirishana 177

Koch-Griinberg, Theodor 180

Kochia scoparia 1 27

Kofan 126

Korea 91

Koribo 59, 72

Koryak 64, 82, 83

Kougoed 56, 98

Krasnojarsk District 82

Kratom 49, 72

Kuluene River 24

Kuma75, 111

Kuma Mushroom 36

Kung 97

Kuripako 177

Kwashi 26, 52, 72
Kykeon 104
La Barre, Weston 64
Lady of the Night 39, 68, 98
Lagochiiine 79
Lagochilus 26, 46
Lagochilus inebrians 26, 46, 78
Lake Victoria 99
Latua 46

Latua pubi flora 46, 72
Latue 27, 46, 72, 73
Latuy 76
Latvia 75
Le-sa 179
Lecythus 81
Leguminosae 138
Lemon 1 39
Lemongrass 40, 98
Leon, Padre Nicolas de 147
Leonotis 47

Leonotis leonurus 47, 72, 98
Leonurus 47

Leonurus sibiricus 47, 76, 98
Leosibiricine 77
Leosibirine 77
Lespedeza capltata 138
Levitation 77

Lewin, Louis 13, 196, 197, 197

Li Shih-chen 1 07

Lianas 65

Lichens 18, 19

Libation 91

Liberty Cap(s) 55, 72, 1 56-
163

Lilium candidum 16

Lily-like plants 65

Lindley, John 16

Linnaeus, Carolus 16, 107, 189

Linne, Carl von 16

Lion’s Tail 46, 72

Liquor 109

Lithuania 75

Llanos 116

Lobelamidine 79

Lobelia 47

Lobelia tupa 47, 78

Lobeline 79

Lolium 102

Lomariopsls japurensls 124
Lonicerof Frankfurt 104
Lophophora 47, 70, 74, 75,
144-155

Lophophora diffusa 47, 74
Lophophora williamsii6, 22,
29,47,74,75, 144-155, 186
Love potion 75
LSA79

LSD 14, 69, 75,77, 171, 185,
186, 187, 189, 189, 190, 193
LSD ecstasy 195
Luciilus 95

Lumholtz, Carl 144, 147
Lupuna 134
Lycoperdon 48

Lycoperdon marginatum 48, 70
Lycoperdon mixtecorum 48, 70
Lycoperdon sp. 70
Lycopodium 77, 168
Lygodium venustum 1 24
Lysergic acid 69, 103, 171
Lysergic acid amide 75, 1 03,
171, 185, 187
Lysergic acid diethylamide
(LSD) 69, 171, 187
Lysergic acid hydroxyethyla-
mide 75, 103, 171, 185, 187
Ma 94
Ma-fen 94
Maa-jun 97
Mace 74
Macedonia 102
Mackenzie Mountains 85
Maconha 26, 68, 73
Maconha Brava 98
Macropsia 67, 71, 133
Madagascar Periwinkle 98
Madonna Lily 16
Maenads 88

Magic ceremonies 71, 72

Magic infusions 71
Magic Mushrooms 14, 22, 159
Magic plant 73
Magic potion 74
Magliabecchiano Codex 162
Mahayana 97
Mahekototen shaman 179
Maicoa 27, 66
Maikoa 143

Maiden’s Acacia 34, 72
Maize beer 79, 109, 122, 141,
141 , 150
Majun 73

Maku Indians 66, 69, 176
Makuna 177
Malaria 95
Malaya 98
Malaysia 72
MalvaColorada72
Maloca 130, 132
Malouetia tamaquarina 1 24
Malpighia family 30
Malpighiaceae 1 38
Mammillaria 48, 78
Mammlllaria craigii 48, 78, 79
Mammillaria grahamii 48, 78, 79
Mammillaria heyderii 48, 79
Mammillaria sinilis 78
Man-t'o-lo 107
Manaka 68

Mandragora 48, 81, 86-91
Mandragora officinarum 48,

72, 81, 86-91
Mandragorine 73
Mandrake 26, 48, 72, 73, 74,

81, 81, 86, 86-91, 87, 88,

89, 90, 91, 107
Mandrake root 91
MAO inhibitor 127, 131, 137
Mapuche 27, 66, 69, 72,78
Maquira 49, 74
Maquira sclerophylla 49, 74,

Mara’akame 148, 148, 150,

150, 154
Maraba 26, 70
Maria Sabina 14, 156-163
Marijuana 12, 13, 17, 72, 73,

79, 92-101

Marijuana substitute 69, 73,

76, 98

Marijuanillo 76
Mascagania glandulifera 1 24
Mascagania psilophylla var.

antifebrilis 1 24
Mash, Deborah 113
Mashihiri 45, 72
Massachusetts 104, 105
Mataco Indians 120, 122, 122
Matwu 38, 74
Maya 66, 109, 162
Maypure Indians 118, 119
Mazatec(s) 14, 66, 68, 70, 71,
75, 78, 156-163, 164, 164,
165, 174

Mecki and the Dwarfes 84
Medina Silva, Ramon 148,

148, 149, 150, 151
Melaleuca sp. 183
Mene-kahi-ma 124
Merian, Matthaus 81
Mesa 168

Mescal Bean 26, 27, 57, 68,

74, 152

Mescal Button 74
Mescaline 22, 23, 75, 77, 145
167, 185, 186, 187, 189
Mesembrenine 71
Mesembrine 71
Mesembryanthenum 71
Mesembryanthenum expan-
sum 70

Mesembryanthenum tortuo-
sum 70

Mesoamerica 84, 161
Mesolithic 140
Mestizos 139
Metachlamydeae 17
Metanicotine 183

Metate 71, 75, 150
Metel nut 107
Meteloidine 107, 141
Mexican Indians 74
Mexican Mugwort 98
Mexico 6, 22, 26, 27, 62, 64,
66,68,70,71,72,74,78,
81, 97, 99, 107, 107 , 109.
110, 111, 111, 144, 145,
147, 147, 150, 151, 156,
158, 159, 159, 162, 166,

172, 173, 174
Mexico City 165
Mfeng 96
Miami 113
Michigan 85
Michoacan 158
Mictlantlcuhtli 162
Middle Ages 1 4, 68, 69, 70, 74,
81, 102, 104
Middle America 78
Midwives 69
Mihi 124
Milky Way 176
Miltomate 174
Mimohuasca 139
Mimosa 49

Mimosa hostilis 49, 70, 71 , 138
Mimosa scabrella 137, 138
Mimosa tenuiflora 49, 70, 137,
138, 138, 139
Mimosa verrucosa 70
Ming dynasty 107
Minoan culture 66
Mint 64

Misperceptinogens 12
Mistletoe family 124
Mitra 82
Mitragyna 49

Mitragyna speciosa 49, 72
Mitragynine 73
Mixe 158

Mixtec(s) 27, 70, 75, 158
MMT 77
Moche 162
Mojas 117

Mongolian shamans 12
Mongoloids 140
Monocotyledonea 16
Monomethylthryptamine 179
Mopope, Stepehn 152
Moraceae 93

Morning Glory 26, 45, 63, 74,
75, 81, 103, 147, 170-175,
170-175, 185
Morpheus 20
Morphine 12, 20, 21
Mother Gaia 173
Mucha, Alphonse 143
Mucuna 50, 69
Mucuna pruriens 50, 68, 138,
138

Muller, Ferdinand J.H. von 183
Munchhausen 105
Muhipu-nuri 176
Muinane 178
Muisca 117, 141
Munchira 142
Murderer's Berry 88
Muscarine 83
Muscazone71
Muscimole 71, 83
Mushroom madness 75
Mushroom cap 63
Mushroom stones 161
Mushrooms 14, 17, 23, 62, 69,
70,71,73,78,79,81, 156-
163, 164, 174
Muslim 73
Mutterkorn 102
Myosmine 183
Myristica 50

Myristica fragrans 50, 74
Myristicaceae 50, 138
Myristicine 50, 75
Mysticomimetics 12
Mythology 63, 68, 72, 88, 124
/V-acethylnornicotine 183
W-formylnornicotine 183

206

W-methyl-3,4-di-methoxyphe-
nylethylamine 79
W,W-dimethyltryptamine 71
W.W-DMT 67, 69, 71, 77
Naeher, Karl 113
Nahua 158

Nahuatl 109, 146, 162, 170,
174

Nandi 109

Naranjo, Claudio 113
Narcosis 174

Narcotic(s) 10, 26, 31, 72, 73,
75, 107

Narcotic fruit 74
Natema 30, 124, 143
Native American Church 74,
152, 152, 153, 155
Native American tribes 71
Nauwald, Nana 122,137, 194,
195

Navajo 110, 155
Nayarit 146, 162
Nazca culture 166
Ndzi-eboka 115
Near East 68
Necromancers 87, 94
Neocerdan-diterpenes 165
Neolithic 94

Neoraimondia macrostibas
168

Nepal 27, 30, 78, 84, 93, 106,
107, 158

Nepeta cataria 98
Nerval, Gerard de 100
Netherlands 139
Nettle family 93
New England 95, 104
New Guinea 26, 70, 74, 76, 77
New Orleans 99
New Spain 122, 146
New World 26, 30, 62, 64, 66,
67, 73, 78, 90, 99, 105, 107,
107, 109, 144, 176
New Years's Eve 84, 153
Niando 98

Nicotiana rustics 79, 134, 134
Nicotiana tabacum 1 7
Nicotine 75, 183
Nierika 63, 196
Nightshade 74, 89
Nightshade family 26, 27, 30,
75, 86, 88, 89
Nightshades 5
Ninfa 66

Ninos (santos) 14, 161, 164
Niopo 27, 1 19
Nonda 74

Nor-lobelamidine 79
Noradrenaline 145, 184, 186,
187

Norcarnegine 77
Norepinephrine 184, 185
Norharmine 127
Norman times 95
Nornicotine 75, 183
Nornuciferine 67
Norscopolamine 141
Nortropine 73
North Africa 97
North America 26, 70, 84, 95,
158

Nti-si-tho 159
Nuciferine 67

Nutmeg 26, 50, 74, 75, 176
Nyakwana68, 69, 177, 178
Nyi 133

Nyiba-eboka 1 1 5
Nymphaea 50, 67
Nymphaea ampla 50, 66, 67
Nymphaea caerulea 50, 66
Oaxaca 66, 70, 75, 78, 1 58,
162, 164, 170, 173, 174
Obstetrics 69
Ochre 142

Ocimum micranthum 1 24
Oco-yaje 126
Ocot! 172
Ointments 70
Ojibwa 85

Oklahoma 152

Old World 30, 64, 67, 68, 72,

78, 90, 92, 97, 107,176
Ololiuqui 26, 60, 64, 66, 71, 74,
103, 111, 156, 170-175,
170-175, 185, 187, 189
Omagua 140
Oncidium 50

Oncidium ceboletta 50, 66, 67
Opiate addict 113
Opium (poppy) 12, 13, 20, 21,
100, 104

Opium substitute 72
Opium-like effects 72
Opuntia 124, 145
Oracle of Delphi 86, 91
Orchid, orchids 65, 66
Oregon 157
Orgies 88

Orinoco 26, 27, 72, 81, 116,
118. 119, 176, 177
Orinoco basin 66, 119, 176,

177

Ortega 165
Osage 153
Osca 117

Oshtimisk Wajashkwedo 85
Osmond, Humphrey 13, 191
Otomac 1 1 8
Otomi 158

Out-of-body experiences 165
Pachycereus 51
Pachycereus pecten-aborigi-
num 51, 66
Pacific 64, 162
Pacific North West 158
Paez 140
Paguando 45, 74
Painted Nettle 39, 164
Pakidai 177
Pakistan 68, 73
Paleolithic 140
Palm wine 71
Palo de borracho 135
Palqui 68, 69, 98
Panacea 73

Panaeolus 51, 52, 156-163
Panaeolus cyanescens 68
Panaeolus sphinctrinus 51, 78,
156-163, 157
Panaeolus subbalteatus 52,
156-163
Panama 97, 162
Panax ginseng 91
Pancratium 52
Pancratium trianthum 52, 72
Pandanus sp. 52, 76, 77
Papaver somniferum 21
Papua 26, 66, 68
Paracelsus 10, 20
Parahure 177
Pariana region 74
Parica 68, 69, 177
Paris 102
Parjanya 82
Parsees 1 02

Pashupatinath 27, 93, 107
Paspaium grass 104
Passiflora involucrata 127
Passiflor aspp. 127, 129
Passionflower 129
Paste 67, 69, 178
Paumare Indians 177
Pastora 1 64
Paye(s) 117, 176
Pedilanthus tithymaloides 168,
169

Peganum52, 124, 137—139
Peganum harmala 52, 69, 73,
76, 77, 124, 127, 129, 137,
139

Pelecyphora 53
Pelecyphora aselliformis 53,
74

Pen Tsao Ching 94
Pernambuco 70
Pernettya 53, 77
Pernettya furens 53, 76, 77
Pernettya parvifolia 53, 76, 77

Persephone 81, 105
Persia 98

Peru 66, 67, 68, 76, 81, 95,

109, 122, 127, 129, 140,

141, 162, 166, 166, 167,

169, 178

Peruvian Amazon 135, 162,
178

Peruvian Indians 66, 67, 135
Peruvian shaman 12
Petunia 27, 53, 76, 77
Petunia violacea 53, 76
Peucedanum 53, 71
Peucedanum japonicum 53,

70, 71

Peyote 6, 8, 12, 13, 26, 47, 62,
63, 64, 66, 70, 74, 75, 81,

99, 143, 144-155, 157, 166,
172, 174, 184, 186
Peyote bird 155
Peyote Cimarron 70
Peyote cult 63, 75, 1 44
Peyote de San Pedro 78
Peyote fan 155
Peyote festival 6
Peyote surrogate 67, 70, 147
Peyotillo 53, 74, 147
Peyotl 146, 156, 186
Pfaffia 134

Pfaffia iresinoides 134
Phalaris 54

Phalaris arundinacea 54, 76,
138, 138

Phalaris tuberosa 138, 138
Phanerothymes 12
Phantastica 13, 196, 197
Phantasticants 12
Pharmahuasca 137
Phenethylamine(s) 67, 71 , 75
Phenylalanine 185
Phenylethylamin(s) 185
Philip II of Spain 146
Philippine Islands 68
Phragmites australis 68, 138
Phrygylanthus sugenoides
124

Physalis sp. 174
Phytolacca 54

Phytolacca acinosa 54, 76, 77
Pichana 134
Pijaos 142
Pima 110

Pincushion Cactus 40, 48
Pinde 30, 124
Pinus strobus 17
Piper auritum 98
Piper methysticum 64
Pipiltzin 165

Pipiltzintzintli 27, 70, 164-165
Piptadenia peregrina 1 1 6
Piraparana 133, 176
Piri piri 134

Pitallito (cactus) 42, 74, 75
Pituri 73, 74,75, 81, 182-183
PituriBush 42,74,182-183.
182, 183

Piturin(e) 75, 183
Piule 27, 56, 66,74,174
Plains tribes 152
Plant Kindom 16-19
Pliny the Elder 95
Plutoniuon 104
Poison 73, 86
Poison Bush 74
Pokeberry 54
Polynesian Islanders 64
Poiyporales 17
Polytrichum commune 16
Pombe 109
Popocatepetl 63, 161.

Popol Vuh 161
Poppy 20, 21, 24
Porta 90
Prescott 105
Prickly Poppy 98
Prisoners 75
Prophecy 75, 124, 177
Prophesy 86
Protector 71

Protestantism 1 1 5
Pseudo-hallucinations 14
Psilocine 23, 23, 69, 73, 79,

159, 185, 186, 187
Psilocybe 54, 55, 156-163,

171

Psilocybe acutissima 78
Psilocybe aztecorum 63, 78
Psilocybe azurenscens 156,

157

Psilocybe caerulescens 78,

163

Psilocybe caerulescens var,
albida 78

Psilocybe caerulescens var.

mazatecorum78, 156
Psilocybe caerulescens var-
nigripes 78, 156
Psilocybe caerulescens var.

ombrophila 78
Psilocybe cubensis 54, 78,
156-163, 157, 159
Psilocybe cyanescens 55,
156-163

Psilocybe hoogshagenii 157
Psilocybe mexicana 22, 55,

78, 79, 156-163, 156
Psilocybe mixaeensis 78
Psilocybe pelliculosa 1 58
Psilocybe semilanceata 55, 72
Psilocybe semperviva 78, 156
Psilocybe sitigineoides 157
Psilocybe species (= spp.) 29,

79, 156-163

Psilocybe wassonii78, 157
Psilocybe yungensis 78, 156,
162

Psilocybe zapotecorum 78
Psiiocybin(e) 23, 23, 69, 73,

79, 157, 159, 185, 186, 187,
189

Psychedelic dose 73
Psychedelic therapy 191
Psychedelic(s) 13, 191
Psychoanalysis 191
Psychodysleptics 1 3
Psychogens 12
Psycholysis 190, 191
Psychoses 12
Psychosomimetics 12
Psychotaraxics 13
Psychotica 12
Psychoticants 12
Psychotomimetic(s) 12, 13
Psychotria 55, 124-135
Psychotria carthaginensis 1 24
Psychotria poeppigiana 1 38
Psychotria viridis 55, 66, 67,
124-135, 134, 135, 137,

138, 139
Pteridophyta 16
Pucallpa 133
Puebla 99, 158
Puffballs 27
Puinave 177
Pulma 134

Puna region 120, 123
Putumayo 126
Pygmy 97, 112
Pythagoras 90
Pythia 91

Quapaw Indians 1 53
Quechua 124
Quetzalaxochiacatl 66
Quiche-(Maya) 84
Quinde 142

Quinoiizidine type alkaloids 77
Quinta essentia 20
Ratsch, Christian 27, 189
Rahner, Hugo 88
Rain priests 79, 110
Rajaw Kakuija 84
Rami 134

Rape dos Indios 49, 74
Rasping stick 150
Raven 91
Recreation 69
Red Bean 26, 74, 75
Red Bean Dance 75

Red Canary Grass 54
Red Tengu mushroom 85
Reed Grass 76, 77
Reichel-Doimatoff, Gerardo
62, 126, 131, 132
Reindeer milk 71 , 82
Remo caspi 134
Reserpine 13

Resin 69, 75, 176, 178, 181
Rheumatism 77
Rhizomes 67
Rhynchosia 56, 75
Rhynchosia longeracemosa
74

Rhynchosia phaseoloides 56,
74, 75

Rhynchosia pyramidalis74
Riamba cult 99

Ribas, Padre Andrea Perez de
145

Rig-Veda‘82, 83
Rio Branco 119
Rio Grande 74
Rio Madeira 72, 119
Rio Maranon 140
Rio Negro 177
Rio Purus 177
Rio Tikie 66
Rio Vaupes 66, 126
Ritualistic significance 67
Rivea corymbosa 74
Roman priests 89
Romans 95
Rome 70, 74
Root Beer Plant 98
Rosa Maria 99
Rosa spinosissima 1 7
Rosebud Reservation 152
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
117, 126
Rubiaceae 138
Ruiz, Fortunato 120
Russel, F. 110
Russians 82
Rutaceae 138
Rye 68, 102, 102
Sabbat 69

Sacred mushroom(s) 14, 78,
79, 147, 159
Sacred tree 78
Sadhu 93
Safrol 75

Saguaro 39, 76, 77
Sahagiin, Fray Bernardino de
111,144, 145, 147, 159, 170
Salaman 142
Salem 104
Salta 120
Salves 74

Salvia 56, 68, 164-165
Salvia divinorum 14, 56, 70,

71, 164-165, 164-165, 184
Salvinorin A 71, 165
Salvinorin B 165
Samadhi 189
San Antonio 147
San Bartolo Yautepec 174
San Critobal de Las Casas 159
San Isidro 54, 156-163
San Luis Potosi 148
San Pedro (cactus) 27, 59, 76,
166-169, 166-169
Sananco 134, 135
Sanango 58, 76
Sandison, Ronald A. 190
Sandoz 187
Sanskrit 68, 107, 108
Santo Daime 139
Saponines 69, 73, 77
Satori 189
Saxon times 95
Scandinavia 88, 102
Sceletium 56, 71
Sceletium expansum 56
Sceletium tortuosum 56, 70,
98

Scirpus atrovirens 56
Scirpus sp. 56, 66, 67
Screw Pine 52, 76

207

Scopine 73

Scopolamine 67, 69, 71 , 73,
75, 79, 86, 87, 107, 141,

183

Scopoletine 69, 75
Scopolia 57

Scopolia carniolica 57, 74
Scotch Rose 1 7
Scythians 72, 94, 95, 97
Sea Bean 98
Seaweeds 17
Secale cereale 102
Sedatives 13
Sedges 65

Semilla de laVirgen 175
Seminarcosis 75
Seri Indians 77
Serotonin(e) 22, 120, 159,
171, 185, 187
Sertiirner, Friedrich 20
Sesquiterpene-lactone 79
Shaman(s) 8, 30, 62, 67, 69,
72, 75, 82, 82, 120, 126,
134, 139, 142, 148, 149,
156, 164, 168, 175, 176,

178

Shamanic medicine 76, 117
Shamanic significance 67, 71
Shamanism 64, 85
Shang-la 76, 77
Shanin 53, 76
Shanshi 27, 40, 76
Sharon, Douglas 169
She-to 78
Scheelea 1 80
Shen-Nung 94, 95, 95
Shimbe Lake 168
Shipibo Indians 125, 126,

129, 130, 131
Shiriana 177

Shiva 10, 13, 27, 92, 93, 97,
108, 108, 109
Shiva Ungam 107
Shrubs 65

Siberia 26, 64,70,71, 82
Siberian Lion's Tail 76
Siberian Motherwort 47, 76,
98

Sibundoy Valley 67, 74, 141 ,
142, 142
Sibyl 91

Sierra Madre Occidental 97,
147

Sierra Madre Oriental 164
Sida 57, 72, 73
Sida acuta 57, 72, 98
Sida rhombifolia 57, 72, 98
Sinaloa 145

Sinicuiche 27, 43, 63, 76, 77
Sinu culture 65
Siona 126

Sioux medicine man 152
Smokehaouse 71
Snail shell lime 67, 118, 119
Snuff(s) 27,67,68,73, 75,81,
116-119, 116, 120-123
176-181
Sogamoza 140
Solanaceous 71
Solandra 72, 73
Solandra brevicalyx 72
Solandra guerrerensis 72, 73
Solanum maniacum 170
Soma 62, 62, 70, 82-85, 97
Somalata 84
Sonora 77
Soothsayer 122
Sophora secundiflora 68, 69,
74, 75, 152

Sorcerers 71, 77, 112, 147
Sorcerer’s Cherry 88
Sorcery 73, 124
Sotho 96

South Africa 70, 71 , 72, 76, 97
South America 19, 26, 27, 30,
62, 65, 66, 76, 77, 81, 95,
118 118, 134, 135, 140,
162, 166, 172
South American Indian 33

Southeast Asia 26, 73
Southwest 26, 109
Spain 157
Spaniards 156, 171
Spanish cronicles 74, 144,

173

Spathiphyllum canaefolium
179

Species Plantarum 16
Spermatophyta 17
Sphaeradenia 179
Spruce, Richard 24, 24, 65,
117, 119, 126, 132, 176
Sri Lanka 77
St. Anthony 103, 104
St. Anthony's fire 26, 68, 102-
105

St. Peter 166
Stearns, John 105
Stimulant 71 , 73, 75, 79
Straw Flower 43, 76
Stopharia cubensis 158, 159
Strychnos usambarensis 127
Stupor 67, 141
Succulents 65
Sucuba 134
Sui period 108

Sun Father 63, 106, 117, 131,
133, 176
Sun God 91
Sung dynasty 107
Surara 177
Sushrata 95
Sweet Calomel 76
Sweet Flag 16, 26, 34, 76
Switzerland 96
Syrian Rue 52, 76, 77, 124,
127, 129, 139
Syphilis 170
Ta Ma 72

Tabaco del Diablo 47, 78
Tabernaemontana 58, 76
Tabernaemontana coffeoides
58, 76

Tabernaemontana crassa 58,
76, 77

Tabernaemontana dichotoma
76, 77

Tabernaemontana pandaca-
qui 76

Tabernaemontana sananho
58, 134, 135

Tabernaemontana spp. 58
Tabernanthe 58, 112-115
Tabernanthe iboga 29, 58, 70,
112-115, 112-115
Tagetes 58, 78, 79
Tagetes lucida 58, 78, 79
Taglli 27, 76
Taino 116
Taique 27, 42, 76
Tajik tribesmen 78
Takemoto 83
Takini 44, 78
Tamu 78
Tanaecium 59

Tanaecium nocturnum 59, 72,
73

Tanayin 1 10
Tannins 73
Tanzania 70, 109
Tantric practices 93, 97
Taoist 94, 107

Tarahumara 8, 66, 69, 70, 71 ,
74, 75, 78, 79, 144, 147,
149, 150, 151
Tarascans 158
Tatar 78

Tatewari 62, 148, 150
Taxine 19

Telepathine 126, 127
Teliostachya lanceolata var.

crispa 1 24
Tengu 85

Teochichimeca ritual 1 47
Teonanacatl 55, 62, 71, 78,
81, 156-163, 185, 186,

187

Teotihuacan 172, 173

Tepantitla 173
Tepecano Indians 99
Tepescohuite 70
Tesguino 109
Tetrahydrocannabinol 184,
184

Tetrahydroharmine 77, 127
Terahydroharmol 127
Tetrahydroisoquinoline alka-
loids 67, 75, 77
Tetrapteris 59, 1 24-1 35
Tetrapteris methystlca 59, 66,
67, 124

Tetrapteris mucronata 66, 1 24
Teuile 67

Teunamacatlth 156
Teyhuintli 157

Texas 74, 81, 144, 144, 147
Tha-na-sa 78
Thallophyta 17
THC 96, 98, 184, 184, 185
Thailand 72
Thebes 72, 97
Theobroma 179
Theocritus 1 09
Thiophene derivatives 79
Thle-Pelakano 78
Thorn Apple 13, 26, 31, 41 ,
79, 106-111, 109
Thornapple 78
Thrace 1 02
Tiahuanaco 120, 122
Tibet 78, 97, 98
Tlamanalco 63
Tlapatl 1 09
Tlililtzin 66, 174
TMA 14
To-shka 78
Toad(s) 14, 66
Tobacco 10, 17, 29, 63, 64,
69,73, 79, 97,108,116,
117, 120, 124. 127,

130 ,134, 134, 140, 143,

148, 149, 150, 153, 165,
172, 182
Toe 27, 66
Toe negra 124
Toloache 27,41,69,78,79,
106-111

Toloatzin 78, 109
Tolohuaxihuitl 109
Toltecs 144
Tonga 66, 140
Tongo 27
Tonic 79
Torna Loco 111
Torres, C. Manuel 120
Torres, Donna 123
Totubjansush 74
Toxicon 1 0
Trance, daivoyant 7 1
Trance, visionary 75
Trance(s) 77, 88
Tranquilizers 13, 191
Tree of Knowledge 88, 122
Trees 65

Tribulus terrestris 1 27, 1 37
Trichocereus 59, 166-169
Trichocereus pachanoi 59, 76,
77,81,166-169, 166-169
Trimethoxyphenylethylamine
75

Trinidadian ferns 1 9
Triptolemus 81
Triterpenes 7 1
Tropine 73

Tropane alkaloids 69, 71, 73,
75,79, 141

Tryptamine derivatives 67, 75,
159, 179, 185
Tryptamine(s) 73, 81 , 1 1 7,
120, 129, 138, 171, 180
Tryptophane 117, 185
Tschudi, Johann J. 140
Tsuwiri 70

Tubatulobal tribe 1 1 0
Tukano(an) Indians 67, 124,
126, 127, 131, 133, 176,
177

Tukche 106
Tunas 145
Tunja 117, 141
Tupa 78

Turbina 60, 170-175, 170-
175

Turbina corymbosa 29, 60,

74, 75, 170-175, 170-175
Turkestan 26, 78
Turkestan Mint 46, 78
Turkoman tribesmen 78
Turkey Red variety 138
Turner 91
Turnera diffusa 98
Twiners 65
Tzompanquahuitl 68
Ucuba 176

U.S. Pharmacopoeia 99
Ukraine 104
Umu 122

Uncaria tomentosa 134, 135
Uniao do Vegetal 139
Unio mystica 189
United Staates 13, 74, 75, 99,
144, 151, 152, 154, 155,
191, 193
Uppsala 16, 189
Urticaceae 93
Usbek tribesmen 78
Vaccinium oliginorum 71
Vahiyinin 82
Valdes 165
Valdivia 72
Varanasi 97
Varuna 82
Vasoconstrictor 69
Vaupes 131
Vaya (Vayu) 82, 83
Velada 14, 160
Venezuela 64, 68, 178,119,
176, 177

Ventilago vlminalis 1 83
Veracruz 99
Vertine 77
Viho-mahse 176
Vikings 95

Villca 30, 34, 66, 120, 122,
122

Villca camayo 122
Villca Coto 122
Vine of the Soul 124
Vines 65

Vinho de Jurema 71
Virginia 95, 1 10
Virola (spp.) 29, 60, 73, 81 ,
138, 176-181

Virola calophylla6&, 176, 177,
177

Virola calophylloideaGS, 176,

177

Virola cuspidata 1 76
Virola elongata 68, 176, 178
Virola loretensis 176, 178
Virola pavonis 1 78
Virola peruviana 176
Virola njfula 1 76
Virola sebifera 1 38, 1 76
Virola surimanensis 1 76, 176,

178

Virola theiodora 60, 68, 138,
176, 176, 177, 178
Vision-inducing quality 73, 77
Vision-seeking dance 74
Vision-quest 75
Visions 14, 26, 27, 64, 67, 69,
71,75, 77, 79, 109, 110,
122, 122, 148, 159
Voacanga 60, 78, 79
Voacanga africana 78
Voacanga bracteata 78
Voacanga dregei 78
Voacanga grandiflora 60, 78
Voacanga spp. 60
Voacangine 77, 79
Voccamine 79

Waika 72, 118, 177, 178, 179,
181

Walangari Karntawarra Jaka-
marra 182

Wapaq 82
Warao 64

Wasson, R. Gordon 82, 159
Water Lilies 50, 66
Wattisham 1 04
Wavy Cap 55
Weidmann, Fred 193
West Africa 77
West Indies 66, 116
Western Ftemipshere 28, 29.
30

Western society 62, 75, 79,
81, 115
Whale 82
White Pine 17
Wichi 120
Wichowaka 66
Wichuri 66
Wichuriki 78
Wild Dagga 72, 98
Willca 122
Wine 69, 108
Winemaking 77
Wirikuta62, 148, 148, 150,
151

Witch(es) 89
Witch’s Berry 88
Witchcraft 71 , 7289
Witches market 166
Witches’ brews 68, 69, 70, 71 ,
73, 78, 79, 86-91
Witches’ ointments 74
Witches’ salves 74
Witoto 176, 178
Wolf’s Milk plant 169
Wood Rose 78, 79
World tree 135
Wysoccan 79, 1 10
Xerophytes 65
Xibalba 161
Xingu 24
Xixicamatic 174
Xochipilli 63 , 161
Xtabentum 74, 1 73
Xtohk’uh 109
Yage 67, 124-135
Yaje 30, 66, 69,124-135
Yakee 68, 69
Yama 114
Yando 133
Yanomamo 177
Yaqui Indians 27, 70, 71 , 109,
150

Yarinacocha 129
Yas 140
Yato 68
Yauhtli 58, 78
Yekwana 126, 176
Yellow Henbae 44
Yoco 29
Yogis 27
Yogurt 97
Yohimbine 73
Yokut Indians 79, 110
Yop 117
Yopa 116

Yopo 27, 30, 35, 65,66, lie-
119

Yucatan 1 62
Yuman tribes 110
Yupa 118

Yurimagua Indians 79, 162
Yuruparf ceremony 67, 129,
131

Yun-Shih 78
Zacatechichi 27, 78, 79
Zaire 112
Zambesi Valley 99
Zame ye Mebege 1 1 2
Zapotec 66, 75, 173, 174,

174 , 175
Zaparo 129
Tend-Avesta 94
Zornia diphylla 98
Zornia latifolia 98
Zululand76

Zuni Indians (= Zuni) 79, 1 06,
110

208

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